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4 ways to stay out of ETF trouble

Exchange-traded funds are open-ended funds that can be bought and sold on a stock exchange. You can think of them as a hybrid version of both stocks and index funds. You buy them using a broker, just like you would to purchase a stock. They consist of a portfolio of securities that are designed to track different indexes, just like index funds.
The first ETF was launched in 1993, and since then they have become very popular with investors. According to BlackRock's December 2013 industry highlights data, the ETF industry has captured $2.4 trillion in assets since 1993. There are almost 5,000 ETFs available.
Used appropriately, ETFs can permit you to assemble a globally diversified portfolio of stocks and bonds, in a suitable asset allocation, at a low cost. Unfortunately, ETFs can be a trap for the unwary. Here are some tips to avoid potential pitfalls.

Avoid high-fee ETFs

A high-cost ETF should be an oxymoron. A primary benefit of buying ETFs is the ability to track an index at a low cost. Unless the ETF you are buying has a lower expense ratio (management fee) than a comparable low-cost index fund, you should consider purchasing the index fund instead.
Just because an investment is designated as an ETF doesn't mean it's low-cost. There are a number of ETFs that have expense ratios in excess of 1 percent. A few have expense ratios that exceed 2 percent. At the other end of the spectrum, ETFs are available with expense ratios as low as 0.04 percent.
When comparing ETFs that track the same index, with all else being equal, you should purchase the lowest-cost ETF available.

Avoid low-liquidity ETFs

Liquidity is an important consideration to make when selecting an ETF. An ETF that is highly liquid will have lower trading costs and be easier to buy and sell than an ETF that is less liquid.
The liquidity of an ETF is affected by many factors. These include the trading volume of the securities that make up the ETF, the composition of the ETF and the trading volume of the ETF itself.
ETFs that invest in large-cap stocks in developed economies, or track broad indexes, are the most liquid, writes William Artzberger, a CFA based in Houston, on Investopedia. For fixed income, ETFs in which the underlying bonds are Treasury bonds or corporate-grade bonds are more liquid than ETFs that hold riskier bonds.

Avoid leveraged and inverse ETFs

The securities industry is incredibly adept at creating new products that encourage trading. Leveraged and inverse ETFs are examples of products that were created to be sold and not bought.
A leveraged ETF seeks to amplify the returns of an underlying index, using financial derivatives. For example, a leveraged ETF that tracks the Nasdaq-100 index might have a 2-to-1 or even a 3-to-1 ratio, and would be structured to return twice or three times the returns of the underlying index. Of course, if the underlying index drops in value, your losses would be increased by twice or three times the losses in the index.
An inverse ETF is structured to benefit from a decline in the value of the underlying index. Depending on the structure of the inverse ETF, investors can earn double or triple the percent of losses in the underlying index.
There are many problems with leveraged and inverse ETFs. The most obvious is they are highly risky investments. Investing in these funds is pure speculation, rather than responsible, long-term investing.
There is also concern about whether or not these funds perform as advertised. A survey of leveraged and inverse ETFs, which was released in the spring 2012 edition of The Journal of Index Investing and authored by Gerasimos Rompotis, concluded that over longer periods of time (more than one day), returns of these funds may not perform as advertised.
Finally, the management fees charged by leveraged and inverse ETFs are among the highest of those levied by all ETFs. For example, a leveraged commodities fund issued by VelocityShares has an expense ratio of 1.65 percent.

Avoid trading ETFs

One of the oft-stated benefits of ETFs is that they trade on an exchange and you can easily buy and sell them, just like stocks. However, John Bogle, founder of the Vanguard group, says this ability to trade is both a blessing and a curse.
The wide array of available ETFs encourages bad investor behavior, like trying to select outperforming asset classes and engaging in in-and-out trading. Bogle believes investing in ETFs should be limited to funds that track broad stock and bond indexes.

Citibank N.A.

On the web: http://www.citibank.com
Citibank represents the consumer banking operations of financial services giant Citigroup. The unit has more than 1,000 branches in more than a dozen US states. California, New York, and Texas are its largest markets, but the bank also has a significant presence in the Northeast, as well as in Chicago and Miami. It has about 300 international locations in some 40 countries, with a focus on emerging markets in Asia, Latin America, and Central and Eastern Europe. Citibank provides standard banking fare such as deposit accounts, credit cards, and loans to consumers and small businesses, and utilizes its parent's breadth of financial services to also offer investment and financial planning services.
Officers:
CEO: Banks & Credit Unions

Competitors:
Bank of America
HSBC
JPMorgan Chase 

Not to be confused with City Bank.

Citibank National Association

Citibank logo since January 1, 2002 - now
Type	Public company
Founded	1812
Headquarters	New York City, United States of America
Parent	Citigroup

Citibank, one of the major international banks, is the consumer banking arm of financial services giant Citigroup. Citibank was founded in 1812 as the City Bank of New York, later First National City Bank of New York. As of March 2010, Citigroup is the third largest bank holding company in the United States by total assets, after Bank of America and JPMorgan Chase.^[1]
Citibank has retail banking operations in more than 160 countries and territories around the world. More than half of its 1,400 offices are in the United States, mostly in New York City, Chicago, Los Angeles, the San Francisco Bay Area, Washington, D.C. and Miami. More recently, Citibank has expanded its operations in the Boston, Philadelphia, Houston, and Dallas metropolitan areas.
In addition to the standard banking transactions, Citibank offers insurance, credit cards and investment products. Their online services division is among the most successful in the field ^[2] claiming about 15 million users.
As a result of the global financial crisis of 2008–2009 and huge losses in the value of its subprime mortgage assets, Citibank was rescued by the U.S. government under plans agreed for Citigroup. On November 23, 2008, in addition to initial aid of $25 billion, a further $25 billion was invested in the corporation together with guarantees for risky assets amounting to $306 billion.^[3] Since this time, Citibank has repaid its government loans in full.

Valeant to buy Bausch + Lomb for $8.7B

ROCHESTER, N.Y. — Canadian drugmaker Valeant Pharmaceuticals says it will buy eye-health company Bausch + Lomb for $8.7 billion in cash in a massive expansion of its ophthalmology business.
Valeant says the deal will help it capitalize on increasing demand for contact lenses and other products because of aging populations, growing demand in emerging markets and increasing rates of diabetes.
Investment firm Warburg Pincus, which leads an investment group that owns Bausch + Lomb, will receive $4.5 billion in cash. The remaining $4.2 billion will be used to repay Bausch + Lomb's debt.
Rochester, N.Y.-based Bausch + Lomb Holdings Inc. makes contact lenses, eye drugs and ophthalmic surgical devices.
Bausch + Lomb will keep its name and become a division of Valeant Pharmaceuticals International Inc., based in Laval, Quebec.

Prominent hotel developer and Missouri philanthropist John Q. Hammons has died. He was 94. His company says Hammons passed away Sunday at the Springfield nursing home where he'd lived after stepping away from the company he led well into.

USA Beach Vacations - Sanibel Island

 Sanibel Island Travel Tips

Keep in Mind...

• Food is a fine art Seafood is all the rage, particularly grouper and stone crabs. For dessert, order something with chocolate pudding fruit, a locally grown fruit that's filled with a sweet, chocolate-colored pulp. 
• There's a knack to shelling For the best assortment of whelks, conchs and sand dollars, visit the beach an hour before low tide or right after a rain shower. Ask at your hotel's front desk for a guide to finding the best "catch."

This secluded Fort Myers offshoot is considered even more low-key, quiet and quaint than its Gulf Coast neighbor, and that's saying a lot. Casual is the order of the day on Sanibel Island; a shabby chic vibe permeates the Periwinkle Way galleries, restaurants and shops; seashells cover every sandy and linoleum surface. In fact, the abundant seashells have become this island's (and its smaller sister, Captiva's) claim to fame. You'll find plenty of beachcombers practicing the "Sanibel stoop" -- what locals call shelling -- on any lengthy stretch of sand. Plan on joining them for at least one afternoon of your stay; that is, if the mood strikes you. The residents of laid-back Sanibel wouldn't have it any other way.

 

Best Times to Visit Sanibel Island

The best time to visit Sanibel Island is December to April, the peak season. Trips during these five months will be more expensive than at other times, so start planning early. Still, this is when you'll find idyllic beach weather. The late fall is a good time to secure a room deal and do a little shelling in the now chilly gulf water. Avoid the hurricane season altogether -- if you want to visit in summer, then plan your trip for May or June, before the threat of bad storms.

December-April	Temperatures could fall to the mid 50s, but they will most likely stay in the mid 70s. And you might find the quiet island a little too quiet at other times of year. In other words, visiting during Sanibel's peak season might be worth the added expense. If you're interested in a winter trip, however, you should book a few months in advance. Last-minute room rates can start around $250 a night. Key Events: Captiva Holiday Skim Pro Am (December) Sanibel Music Festival (March)
May-June	The price is right at Sanibel Island's best hotels, but you should shoot for May as opposed to June. The later month is the rainiest on the island. When the sun is shining, however, you'll experience mid 80s on most days.
July-September	Sanibel summers are rainy with a chance of hurricanes. Those properties, which  are still open for business, will offer rooms for around $150 a night.
October-November	Florida's late-fall weather is spectacular; on Sanibel Island you'll see lows in the 60s and highs in the 70s and 80s. You won't be able to get in the water every day, and you should certainly pack a sweater for the chilly evenings. But still, you'll find the tides are generally low (translation: good shelling conditions). Room rates are the same as the summer time (around $150 a night), but without the threat of a bad storm.

Washington, D.C.

Washington, D.C., formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, "the District", or simply D.C., is the capital of the United States. On July 16, 1790, the Residence Act approved the creation of a capital district located along the Potomac River on the country's East Coast. As permitted by the U.S. Constitution, the District is under the exclusive jurisdiction of the United States Congress and is therefore not a part of any U.S. state.

The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, which included the preexisting settlements of Georgetown and Alexandria; however, Congress returned the Virginia portion in 1846. Named in honor of George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. Congress created a single municipal government for the whole District of Columbia after the American Civil War.

Washington, D.C., had an estimated population of 632,323 in 2012, the 25th most populous place in the United States. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the city's population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington Metropolitan Area, of which the District is a part, has a population of 5.7 million, the seventh-largest metropolitan area in the country.

The centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to many national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of many international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups, and professional associations.

A locally elected mayor and 13-member council have governed the District since 1973; however, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. The District has a non-voting, at-large Congressional delegate, but no senators. The Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961, grants the District three electoral votes in presidential elections.
 History
Main article: History of Washington, D.C.

An Algonquian-speaking people known as the Nacotchtank inhabited the area around the Anacostia River when the first Europeans arrived in the 17th century.[3] However, the Nacotchtank people had largely relocated from the area by the early 18th century.[4]

In his "Federalist No. 43", published January 23, 1788, James Madison argued that the new federal government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance and safety.[5] Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia. Known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security.[6]

Article One, Section Eight of the United States Constitution therefore permits the establishment of a "District (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States."[7] However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital. In what is now known as the Compromise of 1790, Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and Thomas Jefferson came to an agreement that the federal government would pay each state's remaining Revolutionary War debts in exchange for establishing the new national capital in the Southern United States.[8][a]
Foundation
The U.S. Capitol after the burning of Washington during the War of 1812

On July 9, 1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, who signed the bill into law on July 16. Formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles (16 km) on each side, totaling 100 square miles (260 km2).[9][b]

Two preexisting settlements were included in the territory: the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751,[10] and the city of Alexandria, Virginia, founded in 1749.[11] During 1791–92, Andrew Ellicott and several assistants, including a free African American astronomer named Benjamin Banneker, surveyed the borders of the federal district and placed boundary stones at every mile point.[12] Many of the stones are still standing.[13]

A new "federal city" was then constructed on the north bank of the Potomac, to the east of Georgetown. On September 9, 1791, the three commissioners overseeing the capital's construction named the city in honor of President Washington. The federal district was named Columbia, which was a poetic name for the United States commonly in use at that time.[14][15] Congress held its first session in Washington on November 17, 1800.[16]

Congress passed the Organic Act of 1801, which officially organized the District and placed the entire territory under the exclusive control of the federal government. Further, the unincorporated area within the District was organized into two counties: the County of Washington to the east of the Potomac and the County of Alexandria to the west.[17] After the passage of this Act, citizens living in the District were no longer considered residents of Maryland or Virginia, which therefore ended their representation in Congress.[18]
Ford's Theatre in the 19th century, site of the 1865 assassination of President Lincoln

On August 24–25, 1814, in a raid known as the Burning of Washington, British forces invaded the capital during the War of 1812. The Capitol, Treasury, and White House were burned and gutted during the attack.[19] Most government buildings were repaired quickly; however, the Capitol was largely under construction at the time and was not completed in its current form until 1868.[20]
Retrocession and the Civil War
See also: District of Columbia retrocession and Washington, D.C. in the American Civil War

In the 1830s, the District's southern territory of Alexandria went into economic decline partly due to neglect by Congress.[21] Alexandria was a major market in the American slave trade and residents feared that abolitionists in Congress would end slavery in the District, further depressing the economy. Alexandrians petitioned Virginia to take back the land it had donated to form the District; a process known as retrocession.[22]

The state legislature voted in February 1846 to accept the return of Alexandria and on July 9, 1846, Congress agreed to return all the territory that had been ceded by Virginia. Therefore, the District's current area consists only of land donated by Maryland.[21] Confirming the fears of pro-slavery Alexandrians, the Compromise of 1850 outlawed the slave trade in the District, although not slavery itself.[23]

The outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861 led to notable growth in the District's population due to the expansion of the federal government and a large influx of freed slaves.[24] President Abraham Lincoln signed the Compensated Emancipation Act in 1862, which ended slavery in the District of Columbia and freed about 3,100 enslaved persons, nine months prior to the Emancipation Proclamation.[25] In 1868, Congress granted the District's African American male residents the right to vote in municipal elections.[24]
Growth and redevelopment
Crowds surrounding the Reflecting Pool during the 1963 March on Washington

By 1870, the District's population had grown 75% from the previous census to nearly 132,000 residents.[26] Despite the city's growth, Washington still had dirt roads and lacked basic sanitation. Some members of Congress suggested moving the capital further west, but President Ulysses S. Grant refused to consider such a proposal.[27]

Congress passed the Organic Act of 1871, which repealed the individual charters of the cities of Washington and Georgetown, and a created a new territorial government for the whole District of Columbia.[28] President Grant appointed Alexander Robey Shepherd to the position of governor in 1873. Shepherd authorized large-scale projects that greatly modernized Washington, but ultimately bankrupted the District government. In 1874, Congress replaced the territorial government with an appointed three-member Board of Commissioners.[29]

The city's first motorized streetcars began service in 1888 and generated growth in areas of the District beyond the City of Washington's original boundaries. Washington's urban plan was expanded throughout the District in the following decades.[30] Georgetown was formally annexed by the City of Washington in 1895.[31] However, the city had poor housing conditions and strained public works. Washington was the first city in the nation to undergo urban renewal projects as part of the "City Beautiful movement" in the early 1900s.[32]

Increased federal spending as a result of the New Deal in the 1930s led to the construction of new government buildings, memorials, and museums in Washington.[33] World War II further increased government activity, adding to the number of federal employees in the capital;[34] by 1950, the District's population reached its peak of 802,178 residents.[26]
Civil rights and home rule

The Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution was ratified in 1961, granting the District three votes in the Electoral College for the election of president and vice president, but still no voting representation in Congress.[35]

After the assassination of civil rights leader Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., on April 4, 1968, riots broke out in the District, primarily in the U Street, 14th Street, 7th Street, and H Street corridors, centers of black residential and commercial areas. The riots raged for three days until more than 13,600 federal troops stopped the violence. Many stores and other buildings were burned; rebuilding was not completed until the late 1990s.[36]

In 1973, Congress enacted the District of Columbia Home Rule Act, providing for an elected mayor and 13-member council for the District.[37] In 1975, Walter Washington became the first elected and first black mayor of the District.[38]

On September 11, 2001, terrorists hijacked American Airlines Flight 77 and deliberately crashed the plane into the Pentagon in nearby Arlington, Virginia. United Airlines Flight 93, believed to be destined for Washington, D.C., crashed in Pennsylvania when passengers tried to recover control of the plane from hijackers.[39][40]
Geography
Main article: Geography of Washington, D.C.
The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal passes through the Georgetown neighborhood.

Washington, D.C., is located in the mid-Atlantic region of the U.S. East Coast. Due to the District of Columbia retrocession, the city has a total area of 68.3 square miles (177 km2), of which 61.4 square miles (159 km2) is land and 6.9 square miles (18 km2) (10.16%) is water.[41] The District is bordered by Montgomery County, Maryland to the northwest; Prince George's County, Maryland to the east; and Arlington and Alexandria, Virginia to the south and west.

The Potomac River forms the District's border with Virginia and has two major tributaries: the Anacostia River and Rock Creek.[42] Tiber Creek, a natural watercourse that once passed through the National Mall, was fully enclosed underground during the 1870s.[43] The creek also formed a portion of the now-filled Washington City Canal, which allowed passage through the city to the Anacostia River from 1815 until the 1850s.[44] The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal starts in Georgetown and was used during the 19th century to bypass the Great Falls of the Potomac River, located upstream (northwest) of Washington at the Atlantic Seaboard fall line.[45]

The highest natural elevation in the District is 409 feet (125 m) above sea level at Fort Reno Park in upper northwest Washington.[46] The lowest point is sea level at the Potomac River.[47] The geographic center of Washington is near the intersection of 4th and L Streets NW.[48] Contrary to the urban legend, Washington was not built on a reclaimed swamp, but wetlands did cover areas along the water.[49][50]

The District has 7,464 acres (30.21 km2) of parkland, about 19% of the city's total area and the second-highest percentage among high-density U.S. cities.[51] The National Park Service manages most of the 9,122 acres (36.92 km2) of city land owned by the U.S. government.[52] Rock Creek Park is a 1,754-acre (7.10 km2) urban forest in Northwest Washington, which extends 9.3 miles (15.0 km) through a stream valley that bisects the city. Established in 1890, it is the country's fourth-oldest national park and is home to a variety of plant and animal species including raccoon, deer, owls, and coyotes.[53] Other National Park Service properties include the C&O Canal National Historical Park, the National Mall and Memorial Parks, Theodore Roosevelt Island, Columbia Island, Fort Dupont Park, Meridian Hill Park, Kenilworth Park and Aquatic Gardens, and Anacostia Park.[54] The D.C. Department of Parks and Recreation maintains the city's 900 acres (3.6 km2) of athletic fields and playgrounds, 40 swimming pools, and 68 recreation centers.[55] The U.S. Department of Agriculture operates the 446-acre (1.80 km2) U.S. National Arboretum in Northeast Washington.[56]
Climate
See also: List of Maryland hurricanes (1980–present) and List of Washington, D.C. tornadoes
The National Cherry Blossom Festival is celebrated around the city each spring.

Washington is in the humid subtropical climate zone (Köppen: Cfa) and exhibits four distinct seasons.[57] Its climate is typical of Mid-Atlantic U.S. areas removed from bodies of water. The District is in plant hardiness zone 8a near downtown, and zone 7b elsewhere in the city, indicating a temperate climate.[58]

Spring and fall are warm, while winter is cool with annual snowfall averaging 15.5 inches (39 cm). Winter temperatures average around 38 °F (3.3 °C) from mid-December to mid-February.[59] Summers are hot and humid with a July daily average of 79.8 °F (26.6 °C) and average daily relative humidity around 66%, which can cause moderate personal discomfort.[59][60] The combination of heat and humidity in the summer brings very frequent thunderstorms, some of which occasionally produce tornadoes in the area.[61]

Blizzards affect Washington on average once every four to six years. The most violent storms are called "nor'easters", which often affect large sections of the U.S. East Coast.[62] Hurricanes (or their remnants) occasionally track through the area in late summer and early fall, but are often weak by the time they reach Washington, partly due to the city's inland location.[63] Flooding of the Potomac River, however, caused by a combination of high tide, storm surge, and runoff, has been known to cause extensive property damage in Georgetown.[64]

The highest recorded temperature was 106 °F (41 °C) on July 20, 1930, and August 6, 1918,[65] while the lowest recorded temperature was −15 °F (−26 °C) on February 11, 1899, during the Great Blizzard of 1899.[59][62] During a typical year, the city averages about 37 days at or above 90 °F (32.2 °C) and 64 nights at or below freezing.

Rail transport

Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods by way of wheeled vehicles running on rail tracks. It is also commonly referred to as Train transport. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles merely run on a prepared surface, rail vehicles are also directionally guided by the tracks on which they run. Track usually consists of steel rails installed on sleepers/ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels, moves. However, other variations are also possible, such as slab track where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface.

Rolling stock in railway transport systems generally has lower frictional resistance when compared with highway vehicles, and the passenger and freight cars (carriages and wagons) can be coupled into longer trains. The operation is carried out by a railway company, providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities. Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electrical power from a railway electrification system or produce their own power, usually by diesel engines. Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system. Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport.[Nb 1] Railway transport is capable of high levels of passenger and cargo utilization and energy efficiency, but is often less flexible and more capital-intensive than highway transport is, when lower traffic levels are considered.

The oldest, man-hauled railways date to the 6th century B.C, with Periander, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, credited with its invention. Rail transport blossomed after the British development of the steam engine as a viable source of power in the 18th and 19th centuries. With steam engines, it was possible to construct mainline railways, which were a key component of the industrial revolution. Also, railways reduced the costs of shipping, and allowed for fewer lost goods. The change from canals to railways allowed for "national markets" in which prices varied very little from city to city. Studies have shown that the invention and development of the railway in Europe was one of the most important technological inventions of the late 19th century for the United States, without which, GDP would have been lower by 7.0% in 1890. In the 1880s, electrified trains were introduced, and also the first tramways and rapid transit systems came into being. Starting during the 1940s, the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives, with the process being almost complete by 2000. During the 1960s, electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan and a few other countries. Other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions, such as monorail or maglev, have been tried but have seen limited use.
History

The history of the growth, decline and resurgence of rail transport can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of motive power used.
Pre-steam
Horsecar in Brno, Czech Republic

The earliest evidence of a railway was a 6-kilometre (3.7 mi) Diolkos wagonway, which transported boats across the Corinth isthmus in Greece during the 6th century BC. Trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element. The Diolkos ran for over 600 years.[1]

Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages. The earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a stained-glass window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany, dating from around 1350.[2] In 1515, Cardinal Matthäus Lang wrote a description of the Reisszug, a funicular railway at the Hohensalzburg Castle in Austria. The line originally used wooden rails and a hemp haulage rope, and was operated by human or animal power. The line still exists, albeit in updated form, and is one of the oldest railways still to operate.[3][4]

By 1550, narrow gauge railways with wooden rails were common in mines in Europe.[5] By the 17th century, wooden wagonways were common in the United Kingdom for transporting coal from mines to canal wharfs for transshipment to boats. The world's oldest working railway, built in 1758, is the Middleton Railway in Leeds. In 1764, the first gravity railroad in the United States was built in Lewiston, New York.[6] The first permanent tramway was the Leiper Railroad in 1810.[7]

The first iron plate railway made with cast iron plates on top of wooden rails, was taken into use in 1768.[8] This allowed a variation of gauge to be used. At first only balloon loops could be used for turning, but later, movable points were taken into use that allowed for switching.[9] From the 1790s, iron edge rails began to appear in the United Kingdom.[10] In 1803, William Jessop opened the Surrey Iron Railway in south London, arguably the world's first horse-drawn public railway.[11] The invention of the wrought iron rail by John Birkinshaw in 1820 allowed the short, brittle, and often uneven, cast iron rails to be extended to 15 feet (4.6 m) lengths.[12] These were succeeded by steel in 1857.[10]
Age of steam
A British steam locomotive-hauled train
Tren a las Nubes (Train to the Clouds), located in Salta, Argentina

The development of the steam engine during the Industrial revolution in the United Kingdom spurred ideas for mobile steam locomotives that could haul trains on tracks. James Watt's patented steam engines of 1769 (revised in 1782) were heavy low-pressure engines which were not suitable for use in locomotives. However, in 1804, using high-pressure steam, Richard Trevithick demonstrated the first locomotive-hauled train in Merthyr Tydfil, United Kingdom.[13][14] Accompanied with Andrew Vivian, it ran with mixed success,[15] breaking some of the brittle cast-iron plates.[16] Two years later, the first passenger horse-drawn railway was opened nearby between Swansea and Mumbles.[17]
Earliest British steam railways

In 1811, John Blenkinsop designed the first successful and practical railway locomotive[18]—a rack railway worked by a steam locomotive between Middleton Colliery and Leeds on the Middleton Railway. The locomotive, Salamanca, was built the following year.[19]:20 In 1825, George Stephenson built the Locomotion for the Stockton and Darlington Railway, north east England, which was the first public steam railway in the world. In 1829, he built The Rocket which was entered in and won the Rainhill Trials. This success led to Stephenson establishing his company as the pre-eminent builder of steam locomotives used on railways in the United Kingdom, the United States and much of Europe.[19]:24–30

In 1830, the first intercity railway, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, opened. The gauge was that used for the early wagonways and had been adopted for the Stockton and Darlington Railway.[20] The 1,435 mm (4 ft 8 1⁄2 in) width became known as the international standard gauge, used by about 60% of the world's railways. This spurred the spread of rail transport outside the UK.

By the early 1850s Britain had over 7,000 miles of railway, 'a stunning achievement given that only twenty years had elapsed since the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway.[21]
Early railroads in the US

Railroads (as they are known in the US) were built on a far larger scale than those in Continental Europe, both in terms of the distances covered and also in the loading gauge adopted, which allowed for heavier locomotives and double-deck trains.

The railroad era in the United States began in 1830 when Peter Cooper's locomotive, Tom Thumb, first steamed along 13 miles (21 km) of Baltimore and Ohio railroad track.[22] In 1833, the nation's second railroad ran 136 miles (219 km) from Charleston to Hamburg in South Carolina.[23] Not until the 1850s, though, railroads offered long distance service at reasonable rates. A journey from Philadelphia to Charleston involved eight different gauges, which meant that passengers and freight had to change trains seven times. Only at places like Bowling Green, Kentucky, the railroads were connected to one another.

The Baltimore and Ohio that opened in 1830 was the first to evolve from a single line to a network in the United States.[24] By 1831, a steam railway connected Albany and Schenectady, New York, a distance of 16 miles, which was covered in 40 minutes.[25]

The years between 1850 and 1890 saw phenomenal growth in the US railroad system, which at its peak constituted one third of the world's total mileage.[26][not in citation given] Although the American Civil War placed a temporary halt to major new developments, the conflict did demonstrate the enormous strategic importance of railways at times of war. After the war, major developments include the first elevated railway built in New York in 1867 as well as the symbolically important first transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869.[27]
Electrification and dieselisation
0-Series Shinkansen, introduced in 1964, triggered the intercity train travel boom.
Elevated section of the Chicago 'L'
Luas in Dublin, Ireland

Experiments with electrical railways were started by Robert Davidson in 1838. He completed a battery-powered carriage capable of 6.4 km/h (4 mph). The Gross-Lichterfelde Tramway was the first to use electricity fed to the trains en route, when it opened in 1881. Overhead wires were taken into use in the Mödling and Hinterbrühl Tram in Austria in October 1883. At first, this was taken into use on tramways that, until then, had been horse-drawn tramcars. The first conventional completely electrified railway mainline was the 106 km Valtellina line in Italy that was opened on 4 September 1902. During the 1890s, many large cities, such as London, Paris and New York City used the new technology to build rapid transit for urban commuting. In smaller cities, tramways became common and were often the only mode of public transport until the introduction of buses in the 1920s. In North America, interurbans became a common mode to reach suburban areas. At first, all electric railways used direct current but, in 1904, the Stubaital Line in Austria opened with alternating current.[28]

Steam locomotives require large pools of labour to clean, load, maintain and run. After World War II, dramatically increased labour costs in developed countries made steam an increasingly costly form of motive power. At the same time, the war had forced improvements in internal combustion engine technology that made diesel locomotives cheaper and more powerful. This caused many railway companies to initiate programmes to convert all unelectrified sections from steam to diesel locomotion.

Following the large-scale construction of motorways after the war, rail transport became less popular for commuting and air transport started taking large market shares from long-haul passenger trains. Most tramways were either replaced by rapid transits or buses, while high transshipment costs caused short-haul freight trains to become uncompetitive. The 1973 oil crisis led to a change of mind set and most tram systems that had survived into the 1970s remain today. At the same time, containerization allowed freight trains to become more competitive and participate in intermodal freight transport. With the 1964 introduction of the Shinkansen high-speed rail in Japan, trains could again have a dominant position on intercity travel. During the 1970s, the introduction of automated rapid transit systems allowed cheaper operation. The 1990s saw an increased focus on accessibility and low-floor trains. Many tramways have been upgraded to light rail and many cities that closed their old tramways have reopened new light railway systems.
Innovations

Many benchmarks in equipment and infrastructure led to the growing use of railways. Some innovative features taking place in the 19th and 20th centuries included wood cars replaced with all-steel cars, which provided better safety and maintenance; iron rails replaced with steel rails, which provided higher speed and capacity with lower weight and cost; stove-heated cars to steam-heating cars, piped from locomotive; gas lighting to electric lighting, with use of battery/alternator unit beneath the car; development of air-conditioning with additional underbody equipment and ice compartment. Some innovative rolling stock included the lightweight, diesel-powered streamliner, which was a modernistic, aerodynamically styled train with flowing contours; then came the ultra-lightweight car with internal combustion engine in each train's power car; others included the dome car, turbined-powered trains, bilevel rolling stock, and the high-tech/high-speed electric trains.[29]

Even more, in the first half of the 20th century, infrastructure elements adopted technological changes including the continuously welded rail that was 1/4 miles long; concrete tie usage; double tracking major lines; intermodal terminal and handling technology; advances in diesel-electric propulsion to include AC traction systems and propulsion braking systems; and just-in-time inventory control. Beyond technology, even management of systems seen improvements with the adoption of environmental impact concerns; heightened concern of employee and public safety; introduction of urban area rail networks and public agencies to manage them; and downsizing of the industry employment with greater use of contractors and consultants.[30]
Trains
Main article: Train

A train is a connected series of rail vehicles that move along the track. Propulsion for the train is provided by a separate locomotive or from individual motors in self-propelled multiple units. Most trains carry a revenue load, although non-revenue cars exist for the railway's own use, such as for maintenance-of-way purposes. The engine driver controls the locomotive or other power cars, although people movers and some rapid transits are driverless.
Haulage
Russian 2TE10U diesel locomotive

Traditionally, trains are pulled using a locomotive. This involved a single or multiple powered vehicles being located at the front of the train and providing sufficient adhesion to haul the weight of the full train. This remains dominant for freight trains and is often used for passenger trains. A push-pull train has the end passenger car equipped with a driver's cab so the engine driver can remotely control the locomotive. This allows one of the locomotive-hauled train's drawbacks to be removed, since the locomotive need not be moved to the end of the train each time the train changes direction. A railroad car is a vehicle used for the haulage of either passengers or freight.

A multiple unit has powered wheels throughout the whole train. These are used for rapid transit and tram systems, as well as many both short- and long-haul passenger trains. A railcar is a single, self-powered car. Multiple units have a driver's cab at each end of the unit and were developed following the ability to build electric motors and engines small enough to fit under the coach. There are only a few freight multiple units, most of which are high-speed post trains.
Motive power
A RegioSwinger multiple unit of the Croatian Railways

Steam locomotives are locomotives with a steam engine that provides adhesion. Coal, petroleum, or wood is burned in a firebox. The heat boils water in the fire-tube boiler to create pressurized steam. The steam travels through the smokebox before leaving via the chimney. In the process, it powers a piston that transmits power directly through a connecting rod (US: main rod) and a crankpin (US: wristpin) on the driving wheel (US main driver) or to a crank on a driving axle. Steam locomotives have been phased out in most parts of the world for economical and safety reasons although many are preserved in working order by heritage railways.

Electric locomotives draw power from a stationary source via an overhead wire or third rail. Some also or instead use a battery. A transformer in the locomotive converts the high voltage, low current power to low voltage, high current used in the electric motors that power the wheels. Modern locomotives use three-phase AC induction motors. Electric locomotives are the most powerful traction. They are also the cheapest to run and provide less noise and no local air pollution. However, they require high capital investments both for the overhead lines and the supporting infrastructure. Accordingly, electric traction is used on urban systems, lines with high traffic and for high-speed rail.

Diesel locomotives use a diesel engine as the prime mover. The energy transmission may be either diesel-electric, diesel-mechanical or diesel-hydraulic but diesel-electric is dominant. Electro-diesel locomotives are built to run as diesel-electric on unelectrified sections and as electric locomotives on electrified sections.

Alternative methods of motive power include magnetic levitation, horse-drawn, cable, gravity, pneumatics and gas turbine.
Passenger trains
Interior view of the top deck of a VR InterCity2 double-deck carriage

A passenger train travels between stations where passengers may embark and disembark. The oversight of the train is the duty of a guard/train manager. Passenger trains are part of public transport and often make up the stem of the service, with buses feeding to stations. Passenger trains can involve a variety of functions including long distance intercity travel, daily commuter trips, or local urban transit services. They even include a diversity of vehicles, operating speeds, right of way requirements, and service frequency. Passenger trains usually can be divided into two operations: intercity railway and intracity transit. Whereas as intercity railway involve higher speeds, longer routes, and lower frequency (usually scheduled), intracity transit involves lower speeds, shorter routes, and higher frequency (especially during peak hours).[30]

Intercity trains are long-haul trains that operate with few stops between cities. Trains typically have amenities such as a dining car. Some lines also provide over-night services with sleeping cars. Some long-haul trains been given a specific name. Regional trains are medium distance trains that connect cities with outlying, surrounding areas, or provide a regional service, making more stops and having lower speeds. Commuter trains serve suburbs of urban areas, providing a daily commuting service. Airport rail links provide quick access from city centres to airports.

High-speed rail are special inter-city trains that operate at much higher speeds than conventional railways, the limit being regarded at 200 to 320 km/h. High-speed trains are used mostly for long-haul service and most systems are in Western Europe and East Asia. The speed record is 574.8 km/h (357.2 mph), set by a modified French TGV.[31][32] Magnetic levitation trains such as the Shanghai airport train use under-riding magnets which attract themselves upward towards the underside of a guideway and this line has achieved somewhat higher peak speeds in day-to-day operation than conventional high-speed railways, although only over short distances. Due to their heightened speeds, route alignments for high-speed rail tend to be steeper grades and broader curves compared to conventional railways. Their high kinetic energy translates to higher horsepower-to-ton ratios (20 hp/ton); this allows trains to accelerate and maintain higher speeds and negotiate steep grades as momentum builds up and recovered in downgrades (reducing cut, fill, and tunneling requirements). Since lateral forces act on curves, curvatures are designed with the highest possible radius. All these features are dramatically different from freight operations, thus justifying exclusive high-speed rail lines if it is economically feasible.[30]
Rail Network in Paris, France

Rapid transit is an intracity system built in large cities and has the highest capacity of any passenger transport system. It is grade separated and commonly built underground or elevated. At street level, smaller trams can be used. Light rails are upgraded trams that have step-free access, their own right-of-way and sometimes sections underground. Monorail systems operate as elevated, medium capacity systems. A people mover is a driverless, grade-separated train that serves only a few stations, as a shuttle. Due to the wide variety of rapid transit systems without much uniformity, route alignment vary widely with diverse right-of-ways (private land, side of road, street median) and geometric characteristics (sharp or broad curves, steep or gentle grades). For instance, the Chicago El trains are designed with extremely short cars to negotiate the sharp curves in the Loop. NJ's PATH have similar-sized cars to accommodate curves in the trans-Hudson tunnels. San Francisco's BART operate large cars on its well-engineered routes.[30]
Freight train
Main article: Rail freight transport
Bulk cargo of minerals

A freight train hauls cargo using freight cars specialized for the type of goods. Freight trains are very efficient, with economy of scale and high energy efficiency. However, their use can be reduced by lack of flexibility, if there is need of transshipment at both ends of the trip due to lack of tracks to the points of pick-up and delivery. Authorities often encourage the use of cargo rail transport due to its environmental profile.[33]

Container trains have become the dominant type in the US for non-bulk haulage. Containers can easily be transshipped to other modes, such as ships and trucks, using cranes. This has succeeded the boxcar (wagon-load), where the cargo had to be loaded and unloaded into the train manually. The intermodal containerization of cargo has revolutionized the supply chain logistics industry, reducing ship costs significantly. In Europe, the sliding wall wagon has largely superseded the ordinary covered wagons. Other types of cars include refrigerator cars, stock cars for livestock and autoracks for road vehicles. When rail is combined with road transport, a roadrailer will allow trailers to be driven onto the train, allowing for easy transition between road and rail.

Bulk handling represents a key advantage for rail transport. Low or even zero transshipment costs combined with energy efficiency and low inventory costs allow trains to handle bulk much cheaper than by road. Typical bulk cargo includes coal, ore, grains and liquids. Bulk is transported in open-topped cars, hopper cars and tank cars.

U.S. state

A state of the United States of America is one of the fifty constituent political entities that shares its sovereignty with the United States federal government. Because of the shared sovereignty between each U.S. state and the U.S. federal government, an American is a citizen of both the federal republic and of his or her state of domicile.[1] State citizenship and residency are flexible and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders (e.g., paroled convicts and children of divorced spouses who are sharing custody).

States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local governmental authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state. Kentucky, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia use the official title of Commonwealth rather than State.

The United States Constitution allocates certain powers to the federal government. It also places limitations on the federal and state governments. State governments are allocated power by the people (of each respective state) through their individual constitutions. By ratifying the United States Constitution, the states transferred certain limited sovereign powers to the federal government. Under the Tenth Amendment, all powers not delegated to the federal government nor prohibited to the states are retained by the states or the people.

Historically, the tasks of public safety (in the sense of controlling crime), public education, public health, transportation, and infrastructure have generally been considered primarily state responsibilities, although all of these now have significant federal funding and regulation as well (based largely upon the Commerce Clause, the Taxing and Spending Clause, and the Necessary and Proper Clause of the U.S. Constitution).

Over time, the U.S. Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the federal government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a continuing debate over states' rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states' powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government as well as the rights of individual persons. Debates over states' rights were a contributing factor to the outbreak of the American Civil War.

The United States Congress may admit new states on an equal footing with existing ones; this last happened in 1959 with the admission of Alaska and Hawaii. The U.S. Constitution is silent on the question of whether states have the power to leave unilaterally, or secede from, the Union, but the U.S. Supreme Court has ruled[2][3] secession to be unconstitutional, a position driven in part by the outcome of the American Civil War.

Main article: List of U.S. states

 Alabama
 Alaska
 Arizona
 Arkansas
 California
 Colorado
 Connecticut
 Delaware
 Florida
Georgia      Hawaii
 Idaho
 Illinois
 Indiana
 Iowa
 Kansas
 Kentucky
 Louisiana
 Maine
 Maryland      Massachusetts
 Michigan
 Minnesota
 Mississippi
 Missouri
 Montana
 Nebraska
 Nevada
 New Hampshire
 New Jersey      New Mexico
 New York
 North Carolina
 North Dakota
 Ohio
 Oklahoma
 Oregon
 Pennsylvania
 Rhode Island
 South Carolina      South Dakota
 Tennessee
 Texas
 Utah
 Vermont
 Virginia
 Washington
 West Virginia
 Wisconsin
 Wyoming

Federal power

The Supreme Court of the United States has interpreted the Commerce Clause of the Constitution of the United States which has expanded the scope of federal power. The Cambridge Economic History of the United States says, "On the whole, especially after the mid-1880s, the Court construed the Commerce Clause in favor of increased federal power."[4] In Wickard v. Filburn 317 U.S. 111 (1942), the court expanded federal power to regulate the economy by holding that federal authority under the commerce clause extends to activities which are local in character.[5] For example, Congress can regulate railway traffic across state lines, but it may also regulate rail traffic solely within a state, based on the theory that wholly intrastate traffic can still have an impact on interstate commerce. In recent years, the Court has tried to place limits on the Commerce Clause in such cases as United States v. Lopez and United States v. Morrison.[clarification needed]

Another source of congressional power is its spending power—the ability of Congress to impose taxes and distribute the resulting revenue back to the states (subject to conditions set by Congress). A classic example of this is the system of federal-aid highways, which includes the Interstate Highway System. The system is mandated and largely funded by the federal government, and also serves the interests of the states. By threatening to withhold federal highway funds, Congress has been able to pressure state legislatures to pass a variety of laws. Although some object that this infringes on states' rights, the Supreme Court upheld the practice as a permissible use of the Constitution's Spending Clause in South Dakota v. Dole 483 U.S. 203 (1987).
Governments

States are free to organize their individual governments any way they like, so long as they conform to the sole requirement of the U.S. Constitution that they have "a Republican Form of Government," that is, each state government must be a republic.
Constitutions

In practice, each state has adopted a three-branch system of government (with legislative, executive, and judiciary branches) generally along the same lines as that of the federal government — though this is not a requirement.

Despite the fact that every state has chosen to follow the federal model of government, there are significant differences in some states.

There are also significant similarities. For example, all 50 states allow tax exemptions for religious institutions.[6]
Executive

In all of the U.S. states, the chief executive is called the Governor. The governor may approve or veto bills passed by the state legislature. In forty-three states, governors have line item veto power.[7]

Most states have a "plural executive" in which two or more members of the executive branch are elected directly by the people. Such additional elected officials serve as members of the executive branch, but are not beholden to the governor and the governor cannot dismiss them. For example, the attorney general is elected, rather than appointed, in 43 of the 50 U.S. states.
Legislative
See also: State legislature (United States)

The legislatures of 49 of the 50 states are made up of two chambers: a lower house (termed the House of Representatives, State Assembly or House of Delegates) and a smaller upper house, always termed the Senate. The exception is the unicameral Nebraska Legislature, which is composed of only a single chamber.

Most states have part-time legislatures, while six of the most populated states have full-time legislatures. However, several states with high population have short legislative sessions, including Texas and Florida.[8]

In Baker v. Carr (1962) and Reynolds v. Sims (1964), the U.S. Supreme Court held that all states are required to elect their legislatures in such a way as to afford each citizen the same degree of representation (the one person, one vote standard). In practice, most states choose to elect legislators from single-member districts, each of which has approximately the same population. Some states, such as Maryland and Vermont, divide the state into single- and multi-member districts, in which case multi-member districts must have proportionately larger populations, e.g., a district electing two representatives must have approximately twice the population of a district electing just one.

If the governor vetoes legislation, all legislatures may override it, usually, but not always, requiring a two-thirds majority.
Judicial
See also: State court (United States) and state supreme court

States can also organize their judicial systems differently from the federal judiciary, as long as they protect the federal constitutional right of their citizens to procedural due process. Most have a trial level court, generally called a District Court or Superior Court, a first-level appellate court, generally called a Court of Appeal (or Appeals), and a Supreme Court. However, Oklahoma and Texas have separate highest courts for criminal appeals. New York state has its own terminology, in that the trial court is called the Supreme Court. Appeals are then taken to the Supreme Court, Appellate Division, and from there to the Court of Appeals.

Most states base their legal system on English common law (with substantial indigenous changes and incorporation of certain civil law innovations), with the notable exception of Louisiana, a former French colony, which draws large parts of its legal system from French civil law.

Only a few states choose to have the judges on the state's courts serve for life terms. In most of the states the judges, including the justices of the highest court in the state, are either elected or appointed for terms of a limited number of years, such as five years, eligible for re-election or reappointment if their performance is judged to be satisfactory.
Relationships
Among states

Under Article Four of the United States Constitution, which outlines the relationship between the states, the United States Congress has the power to admit new states to the Union. The states are required to give full faith and credit to the acts of each other's legislatures and courts, which is generally held to include the recognition of legal contracts, marriages, and criminal judgments, and before 1865, slavery status. States are prohibited from discriminating against citizens of other states with respect to their basic rights, under the Privileges and Immunities Clause. Under the Extradition Clause, a state must extradite people located there who have fled charges of "treason, felony, or other crimes" in another state if the other state so demands.
With the federal government

The states are guaranteed military and civil defense by the federal government, which is also required to ensure that the government of each state remains a republic.

Four states use the official name of Commonwealth, rather than State.[9] However, this is merely a paper distinction, and the U.S. Constitution uniformly refers to all of these subnational jurisdictions as "States" (Article One, Section 2, Clause 1 of the Constitution, concerning the U.S. House of Representatives, in which Representatives are to be elected by the people of the "States"; Article One, Section 3, Clause 1, concerning the U.S. Senate, allocates to each "State" two Senators). For all of these purposes, each of the four above-mentioned "Commonwealths" counts as a State.

The Top 100 Best Websites List

This list is based on the rigorous reviews and opinions of our staff who subject each website to an exhaustive examination
based on 21 criteria of excellence before inclusion. We hope you will enjoy this portal to the finest sites the Web has to offer!

 

#	Website	Summary
1	Yahoo!	Yahoo is your Online Free Treasure Room! An outstanding search engine (especially for "official" websites), it also provides a cornucopia of free services: free email, maps, Yellow Pages, games, shopping, news, finance, sports, live chat -- the list just goes on and on and on! By far (in our opinion), Yahoo is the best site on the Web!
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4	About.com	About.com breaks up the Web into major subject areas with a volunteer human host for each of them. It helps you sift out the wheat from the chaff on an enormous range of subjects.
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6	Google Groups	Formerly "DejaNews", Google Groups is a glorious experiment in free speech! This oceanic database of over 800 million posted "Usenet" messages from people all over the globe constitutes the largest bulletin board in the history of the world! It's fully searchable, and you can post your own messages free of charge. (Tip: don't use your primary email address in your posts! To avoid spam, use a temporary email address.)
7	Google News	A bold endeavor in online journalism, Google News provides you hundreds of news sources (typically) for each of the major stories of the day. Just find the story that interests you on the main page, and you will see something like "227 related" or "535 related" just beneath it. Click this to see the extensive range of news sources available for the story you are after! (Its database of past news is also searchable.)
8	CNN	For fast-breaking news and responsible journalism, it's hard to beat CNN. And the text content at this site is mostly free!
9	EBay	Ebay is the world's biggest, longest-running garage sale, as well as its most extensive auction house. Buy, sell, browse, bid, and be amazed at what you find at this wonderful site!
10	Download.com	If you love software treasure-hunting, Download.com is the site for you! This massive and well-rounded collection of shareware (try-before-you-buy) and freeware (totally free software) is fully searchable and sortable. And there's no wait for a package in the mail: download it NOW, install it, and take it for a test drive!
11	Craigslist.org	Craigslist.org is a daring bulletin board system directed toward the major cities in the US, Canada, the UK, and (soon) other countries. The magical distinction of Craigslist is its use of anonymous email forwarding: your email address is invisible to the public. A pointer (which expires after several days) forwards all responses to you. Visit Craigslist if you want to sell or buy something, if you want to meet new people (romantically or otherwise), if you want to look for a job, or if you want to share your ideas. Almost all of its features are totally free, except job listings for employers.
12	Reference.com	Your inner-librarian will be delighted! Here you will find (free of charge) Dictionaries, Encyclopedias, Almanacs, Atlases, and an assortment of other helpful resources.
13	Wikipedia.org	One of the most remarkable online encyclopedias on the Web! All the content is free, in the public domain, and quotable. Wikipedia is maintained by an army of volunteers. Even so, its content remains of very high quality. Wikipedia is a good example of how the Web can function at is best! Be sure to visit whenever you have any question that an encyclopedia might help you answer. You might be surprised how often Wikipedia will come through for you!
14	Beliefnet.com	Beliefnet.com is an online community for people who practice spirituality in just about any tradition in the world. The emphasis here is on mutual respect and tolerance. Free inquiry and exchange of ideas is invited. Secular (non-religious) philosophies and ideas are also welcome. Also, sacred texts from the world's great religions will be found referenced at this site.
15	Anywho	Anywho is a great online phone book and people-finder sponsored by AT&T. Use the Yellow Pages for businesses, the White Pages for people, and the Reverse Lookup if all you have is a phone number.
16	Weather.com	Enter your Zip Code and see the weather predictions for the next ten days (scroll down), courtesy of The Weather Channel. It's easy and it's free!
17	Search.com	Search.com is an outstanding example of a "metasearch engine": a web search tool that employs over 1,000 search engines running in parallel to help you find what you are looking for.
18	Hotmail.com	MSN's Hotmail.com provides you with totally free email, pure and simple!
19	NIH.gov	The National Institutes of Health of the U.S. Department of Health & Human Services has created this clearinghouse of information on all matters related to your physical well-being. You'll find drug information (MEDLINEplus), disease & symptom documentation, health recommendations, summaries on every major system of the human body, and much more at this excellent site.
20	CNET.com	CNET.com (the parent site of Download.com) is a technophile's oasis! If you are looking for desktop computers, laptops, printers, peripherals, software cell phones, cameras, or just about any other kind of gadgetry, be sure to take advantage of CNET's reviews and price comparison features. This free site can save you hundred or thousands of dollars, depending on your needs
21	London Books	The London Review of Books is a respected journal for those who enjoy reading the best books in the world! At times, the reviews themselves rise to the level of great literature.
22	Refdesk.com	You could spend tens and tens of hours browsing the huge catalogue of useful websites at Refdesk.com. You'll find newspapers, photo databases, reference tools, trivia, quotes, self-help advice, search engines, and much, much more at this virtual goldmine of the Web.
23	MayoClinic.com	Simply put, the Mayo Clinic is one of the greatest hospitals and medical research centers on Planet Earth. In that tradition, the Mayo Clinic provides this excellent website devoted to the promotion of human health.
24	GuideStar.org	If you give some of your time, money, and energy to help the disadvantaged of the world, you would probably like to know that your contributions are put to good use. GuideStar.org provides extensive information on nearly all major charitable organizations. It will help you "heal the world" responsibly.
25	FirstGov.gov	The official portal of the Federal Government of the United States, FirstGov.gov puts you in touch with your elected officials and the agencies and people they govern. Lots of good information here.
26	BBC.com	The BBC has long been the standard for international journalism. At this site, you can watch, listen, and read live and recorded content from the BBC. (Be sure to catch the hourly World News Update!) But don’t stop with the news! Be sure to browse the History, Science, Society, and other categories to find rich content of unusually high quality. You could browse this site for many weeks without exhausting its abundant resources!
27	IMDB.com	The Internet Movie Database (IMDB) is a movie-lover's paradise! Discover every movie your favorite actor/actress has been in, discover every actress/actor in your favorite movie! All the facts about all the films will be found here.
28	Expedia.com	Expedia.com makes travel very easy and about as cheap as it can be. Your one stop shop for low-cost air travel, hotels, rental cars, and tour packages!
29	Slate.com	MSN's Slate is one of the premier online magazines. You'll find news, ideas, reviews, and much more here.
30	Nutrition.gov	Nutrition.gov provides authoritative information about health and nutrition. You will also find the USDA's National Nutrient Database here, which will allow you to evaluate your diet with more knowledge than ever before!
31	Altmedicine.com	Alternative medicine has found its voice on the web at Altmedicine.com! Having received praise from many sources (including the prestigious medical journal "The Lancet"), Altmedicine.com explores the best information from many sources on alternative approaches to human health.
32	Citysearch.com	When you need to get to know a city fast, Citysearch.com should be your first stop! You'll find information and reviews of restaurants, hotels, places to see, shopping, services, and much more about major American (and some international) cities at this site.
33	Monster.com	Need a job? Visit Monster.com, an enormous database & job listing site for employers and employees to be!
34	Vote-Smart.org	Enter your Zip Code and find links to your Congresspersons, your President, and your state representatives! Project Vote Smart will help you become an informed and effective voter.
35	Sciam.com	The online manifestaton of Scientific American magazine, Sciam.com presents clear, intelligent writing on the most important scientific discoveries, initiatives, and controversies of our time. Much of the content is free. And you can search past issues!
36	ESPN.com	If you love sports, sports history, or sports statistics, ESPN.com is the site for you!
37	Encarta.com	MSN's online encyclopedia Encarta gives you fast, free access to an amazing range of facts. Much of the content is free, but some requires membership.
38	Findlaw.com	Findlaw.com provides a fantastic set of tools for anyone interested in American Law. Widely used by legal professionals, it can also be used profitably by laymen. Learn the facts about the laws that govern you from this excellent site!
39	Nature.com	One of the world's premier scientific journals, Nature, provides much of its content online (and much of it free!) Check out subject areas on Chemistry, Physics, Microbiology, Medicine and much more at this fantastic site!
40	USA Today local	Though it's not quite a substitute for your favorite local paper, USA Today's "States" news will give you a summary of the major events in all 50 states of the Union.
41	AllPosters.com	Who would have thought that one of the best selections of fine art prints online would be available at a poster shop?! Allposters.com is almost like an online museum: but a museum at which you can buy what you see (at reasonable prices). Not only fine art, but movie and concert posters and many other things framable will be found here!
42	Time.com	Time magazine is one most respected news magazines on earth. And much of its content is available free here!
43	Mapquest.com	Get clear, printable maps, driving directions, addresses of businesses, and much more at Mapquest.com
44	Abebooks.com	Find your favorite old or out-of-print books at this wonderful site!
45	Allmusic.com	From Beethoven to the Beatles and beyond, you'll find Allmusic.com a treasure-trove of musical knowledge.
46	MedlinePlus.gov	The National Institutes of Health maintains MedlinePlus for those interested in reliable information on prescription and over-the-counter drugs. Even so, you'll find many other valuable health-related resources here.
47	Open Directory	As modest as it appears, the Open Directory is a true powerhouse in web-searching! It provides search data to many of the most widely-used search engines, and it itself is a first rate directory of the best of the Web.
48	LOC.gov	The Library of Congress is gradually making more and more of its collosal store of resources available on the web. Its website should afford you many happy hours of browsing.
49	Windows Media	Online Radio is here, and MSN's Windows Media is one of the finest sites available devoted to it!
50	UComics.com	Your favorite comics may be online, and they may be here! The latest contributions from Garfield, Calvin & Hobbes, Doonesbury, Cathy, Ziggy, and many others will be found at this easy-to-use site.
51	InfoPlease.com	A first-rate online almanac, atlas, dictionary, & encylcopedia, all rolled into one!
52	Alexa.com	What's good is not always popular, and what's popular is not always good, but on the Internet, popularity and quality go are found together often enough. Alexa.com helps you find the most frequently visited sites in many categories.
53	Museums	When you're too busy to visit museums in person, you can visit them online! This fantastic guide to online museums is a great place to start.
54	UN.org	The homepage of the United Nations presents a rich collection of information about the state of humankind on Planet Earth. Practical strategies for making this world a better place are laid out in substantial detail here.
55	Sacred Texts	The Internet Sacred Text Archive presents the scriptures of the world's great spiritual traditions. You'll find sacred writings from Zoroastrianism, Hinduism, Taoism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Confucianism, and many others here (along with a few curious entries!)
56	ArtForum.com	Artforum is one of the world's most widely read journals devoted to the fine arts. Be sure to check out there "Museum Finder" when you visit!
57	WebMD.com	Get sound medical information and tips on a healthy lifestyle from this respected site.
58	VLIB.org	The WWW Virtual Library relies on a consortium of experts around the world to present the richest content available on the Web in a broad range of subject areas.
59	MoneyCentral	MSN's MoneyCentral will help you make intelligent decisions about investing, taxes, loans, retirement, and all things financial.
60	Classmates.com	Wouldn't you love to track down some of your old school friends? Or maybe a favorite teacher who made a difference in your life? This is the place to start. Basic access is free, premium access is modestly priced.
61	Europa.eu.int	The Hompage of the European Union is home to a vast collection of information about all aspects of European government. The EU's goals and strategies for achieving them are discussed in detail.
62	Yahoo! Groups	Nowhere is it easier to start your own discussion group or bulletin board about just about anything! Within minutes and with no cost, you can have your special subject humming with lively (and often scrappy) discussion. Free speech rules!
63	NY Rev Books	This foremost literary journal is surprisingly generous with its content: access the full content of each edition online. Remarkable.
64	Jokes.com	Not only will you find jokes in abundance here, but each joke has a running rating from site visitors! Be forewarned, not all these jokes are in good taste!
65	Priceline.com	Name the price you're willing to pay for airline tickets, hotels, rental cars, vacations, or cruises. There's no guarantee your offer will be accepted, but if it is, you will save some serious money!
66	RottenTomatoes	Which movie should you see this weekend? Rottentomatoes.com lets you read the opinions of over 100 critics (for most movies) to help you decide. The "Cream of the Crop" critics list may include your favorite critic. The popular "TomatoMeter" gives you a running average of the critics ratings for each film.
67	IPL.org	The Internet Public Library, based at the University of Michigan, may be the next best thing to having a University library attached to your house! In some ways, it may be even better.
68	AceFitness.com	We all know we should exercise, but what exercises are best for us? The American Council on Exercise describes exercises that are safe and effective for those wishing to stay in shape.
69	Quicken.com	The home of Quicken financial software, this site also provides free tools to help you plan and manage your assets.
70	Andante.com	This celebrated classical music magazine is available online, much of the content free. Paying members will enjoy an extensive collection of additional resources.
71	Pauling Nutrition	What does the latest research say about vitamins, minerals, nutritional supplements, and other nutrients? The Micronutrient Information Center of the Linus Pauling Institute provides detailed and well-documented information on all these. (Incidentally, Linus Pauling was the only person in history to win two Nobel Prizes!)
72	PCmag.com	PC Magazine has long been a favorite read of computer and technology enthusiasts. For hardware and software reviews, as well as tips for improving your computing experience, be sure to visit this site!
73	Times of London	Yes, you have to subscribe for access, but it's worth it to read the Times of London online.
74	Federal Jobs	The FedWorld Federal Job Search engine might land you in a new job quicker than you had thought possible! It's free to use, and user-friendly.
75	IHT.com	One of the world's finest newspapers, the International Herald Tribune is also one of the few online newspapers that doesn't require registration to read, free or otherwise! (Let's hope it stays that way!)
76	Online Books	Over 20,000 free books on the Web, many of them classics! Search by author, title, subject, century, or just browse for fun.
77	Pogo.com	Play Chess, Checkers, card games, or work Crosswords online at Pogo.com, a free website maintained by Electronic Arts!
78	BizRate.com	BizRate.com may be "the largest, fastest, and most accurate shopping search engine on the Web". Save money and find top quality at this site.
79	Billboard.com	Billboard Magazine has chronicled the world of popular music and entertainment since its founding in 1894! (Yes, that's 1894, not 1994!) Much of the information at this site is free.
80	Translation	Translate the content of an entire website from one language to another simply by entering the site's web address! Or enter a block of text and translate it from one language to another! To be sure, the translation is not perfect, but it may be good enough for what you need. AltaVista's Babel Fish Translations site has been serving up automatic translations for years, and it's free! (To see Babel Fish in action, why not translate and display THIS website in any one of 10 languages with a single click of the mouse -- click here  to see our "Translation Bar"!
81	Give.org	Most of us would like to donate money, time, energy, or ideas to help the least advantaged people of the world. But it is a challenge to ensure that our donations are used effectively and responsibly. Give.org, a service of the Better Business Bureau, evaluates major charities and provides reports on how responsibly they do their work.
82	Mathworld	"The Web's most extensive mathematics resource" will help you remember all the algebra, geometry, trig, statistics, calculus, and diffie-Q that you left behind years ago! And you'll probably learn a lot you never knew along the way.
83	WebRing.org	Webrings are like pearl necklaces of websites on related topics. Webring.org helps you find the webring that you'd like to browse or insert your own website into.
84	Career Builder	CareerBuilder.com employs its network of more than 130 local newspapers to help employ YOU! If you're looking for work, do stop by!
85	411.com	411.com is a combined online Yellow Pages, White Pages, People Finder, and more!
86	Epinions.com	This site exists to help people make intelligent buying decisions. It is a compendium of reviews from thousands of people on thousands of different products. A good site to visit before any major purchase.
87	Spiritual Journals	The Religious Studies Web Guide is an enormous collection of links to major journals in theology and spiritual philosophy.
88	ALdaily.com	Arts & Letters Daily is a favorite stop for those who love thinking, literature, and dazzling ideas. It's always fresh and always relevant.
89	Nolopress.com	The homepage of Nolo Press, the pioneers of do-it-yourself law, is also a rich source of free legal information.
90	Classical.net	Classical music lovers of all different levels of experience and sublety will love this site devoted to the history and ideas of great western music.
91	Blogger	Create your own "blog" to express your ideas to the world and invite responses. This service is high quality, and it's free!
92	NYTimes.com	The New York Times online does require (free) registration, but it is well worth that small investment of time. Keep up on events that shape the world by visiting often.
93	Earthcam.com	Live online cameras are all over the world in fascinating and often unlikely places. Look through many windows on the world LIVE at Earthcam.com!
94	BBB.org	The Better Business Bureau is online and ready to help in the continuing struggle against shoddy business practices.
95	intelihealth	Harvard Medical School's respository of consumer health information will be found at this excellent site, along with many user-friendly articles on health, disease, drugs, and the human body.
96	LiveJournal.com	Keep a journal online about anything at all! And browse the journals of others. Livejournal.com is one of the most popular "blogging" sites, and with very good reason.
97	BBC Faith	The "Religion & Ethics" site of the BBC sets the world's great spiritual traditions side by side and provides extensive information on each of them.
98	ArtsJournal	This "daily digest of arts, culture, and ideas" is sure to provide stimulation for aesthetes and intellectuals.
99	TicketMaster	The purpose of ticketmaster.com is simple: get the tickets you want easily, in advance, and at a reasonable cost.
100	Gutenberg.net	Project Gutenberg presents a collection of over 15,000 electronic books ("ebooks") available for free download! Most are older literary works in the public domain, many of the considered classics. An amazing and useful monument to the volunteer labor of thousands of participants!