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Basic Informations

HEAD OF STATE: His Majesty Sultan Qaboos bin Said (since 1970)

AREA: 309,500 sq. km.

NEIGHBOURING COUNTRIES:
Yemen Arab Republic, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.

POPULATION: 2,331,391 (2003 Census).
The official language is Arabic. Islam is the official religion, but other religions are tolerated.

CAPITAL: Muscat

MAJOR CITIES: Salalah, Nizwa, Sur, Sohar

CURRENCY: Rial Omani (OR) of 1,000 baizas = US$2.58

NATIONAL DAY: 18th November

LIFE EXPECTANCY: 73.8 years

POPULATION GROWTH RATE: 2% (2003)
POPULATION DENSITY: 7.5

GOVERNMENT: A bicameral system.
The Council of Oman consists of the Consultation Council and the State Council.
The Consultation members are elected by the Omani citizens, and the State Council members are appointed by HM The Sultan.


TIME DIFFERENCE: GMT + 4 hours

OMAN – Tradition and modernity

Oman lies at the eastern corner of the Arabian peninsula. Sharjah and Fujairah (UAE) separate the main part of Oman from the northernmost part of the state, a peninsula (Musandam) extending into the Strait of Hormuz. It is for many Westerners a country waiting to be discovered.

Historically Omanis were seafarers and traders who dominated regional commodity trading in the Indian Ocean, East Africa and the Arabian Gulf. There were thus a succession of migrations which saw the growth of settlements along some parts of the East African coast.

Prior to the coming on stream of oil in 1964, the country was dependent on the agricultural sector and on fishing activities. In 1970, Oman had just 3 kms of asphalted roads. Asking a 50-year old Omani man to describe his country in the 1960s, the answer was simply: “There was nothing …”.

His Majesty Sultan Qaboos, the son of Sultan Said, was aware of his father’s conservatism so he took over power in 1970. Since that time His Majesty has strived to modernize his country and oil revenues have given him the opportunity to develop a modern infrastructure of roads, ports and airports, as well as first-class telecommunications and broadcasting systems. Some 50 hospitals have been opened throughout the country and educational programmes for all ages successfully implemented.

Of course oil reserves will be exhausted one day and the country is therefore diversifying its economy, especially in the field of tourism. Among the Gulf states, Oman has many advantages for developing tourism: its climate, varied scenery, archaeological and historical remains, as well as its friendly people. With its high standard of hotel accommodation, it can satisfy even the most demanding travellers.

WOMEN

These days the high status Omani women enjoy is reflected in the priority accorded to them in the country’s development plans. According to the 2003 Census, 49% of the population of the Sultanate are women, many of whom are below the age of 18 and have enjoyed the same educational opportunities as boys of a similar age.

The Personal Status Law guarantees Omani women equal rights in both education and employment.

His Majesty Sultan Qaboos has repeatedly called upon the female population to lend their full support to the continuing the development of their country. An example of this is His Majesty’s speech on the occasion of the opening of the Second Term of the Consultation Council (Majlis a’Shura) in December 1994: “We call upon Omani women everywhere, in the villages and cities, in both urban and Bedu communities, in the hills and mountains, to roll up their sleeves and contribute to the process of economic and social development. We have great faith in the educated young Omani women to work devotedly..”. They have responded by seeking and securing jobs from government minister to supermarket check-out assistant.

Government

Women have the right to vote and run for office in Consultation Council elections which are held every 4 years, e.g. in the 5th 2003 elections there were 584 candidates and 16 women were among them representing various regions of the Sultanate. Two were then elected. Additionally, His Majesty has appointed 9 women to serve on the Council of State (Majlis a’Dawla) for a 4-year term of office.

The number of women holding senior positions has risen steadily – on 5th March 2003 Aisha al Siyabia was appointed as President of the Public Authority for Craft Industries, with the rank of Minister. On 8th March 2004 Dr Rawiyah bint Saud al Busaidiyah was promoted to become Minister of Higher Education, making her the first female minister with portfolio in Oman’s history. These were followed on 9th June 2004 when Royal Decree N. 61/2004 established a Ministry of Tourism and named a woman, Rajiha bint Abdulamir to be its Minister. Then on 22nd October 2004 Dr Sharifa bint Khalfan Al Yahya-eyah, a university professor, was appointed to take over the Ministry of Social Development.

Oman is rightly proud to have been the first Arab country to appoint a woman to head an overseas Embassy when Khadija al Lawatia was appointed the Sultanate’s Ambassador to the Netherlands and at  the end of 2005 , Hanina Bint Sultan al-Maghiria is to be Oman's Ambassador in Washington. In 2003 an Omani woman was appointed to head the United Nations Information Centre, based in Geneva, Switzerland, with authority over an international network of 77 information centres and more than 300 staff.

Women are also making strides in the legal profession with 5 ladies appointed as Deputy Attorneys-General in May 2004.

Employment

Statistics show that Omani women in the Civil Service account for 3l% of the total personnel, 18% of the private sector’s employees registered with the Public Authority for Social Insurance are women, as well as 56% of teaching positions at government schools are taken by women.

Education

In higher education, female students make up 61% of students studying at education colleges, 26% at the Sharia and Law College, while at Sultan Qaboos University girls represent 55% of students admitted at diploma level, 50% at degree level and 35% admitted for postgraduate studies.

Omani Women’s Associations (OWAs)
The OWA provides a channel for voluntary work and child welfare services, and 39 branches with 2,738 members can be found throughout Oman.Omani women are encouraged to become involved in voluntary social work and to contribute to the development of their communities. This is in addition to around 3,000 female volunteers in the UNICEF programmes.

Recreation
In 1994 Oman established national women’s teams in volleyball, basketball, tennis, table tennis and several other sports. There are also both government and privately-run centres around the Sultanate which encourage women to preserve their national heritage by teaching traditional crafts and skills. These centres also provide kindergartens, information programmes and field visits, as well as giving the ladies opportunities to take part in conferences and tourism fairs abroad.

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USA Visa Status Check

U.S. Embassy Dhaka is excited to introduce a brand new system for checking applicants’ case status online that will significantly simplify and improve the process for all non-immigrant visa applicants. PLEASE NOTE THAT THIS NEW SYSTEM FOR VISA STATUS CHECK HAS REPLACED THE OLD SPREADSHEET METHOD AND WILL BE THE ONLY WAY TO CHECK YOUR VISA STATUS. If you need your passport to travel or for any other reason after you submit it to the U.S. Embassy, you may collect the passport from the Consular Section on any work day from 10:00 a.m. to 10:30 a.m.  Please bring the administrative processing letter, DS-160 confirmation page with your CEAC Application ID or your PIN ID, whichever available, and the given “token”.  

For applicants who had an interview ON OR AFTER December 23, 2012:

If your visa application has been refused 221(g) and requires additional administrative processing, you can now check the status of your visa case from the Consular Electronic Application Center (CEAC) page https://ceac.state.gov/CEAC/ at any time. We recommend that you check your case status frequently. To do that, you need to enter your CEAC barcode ID number and the interview location (Dhaka) as requested on the website. The CEAC barcode ID number is located on the upper right hand side on your DS-160 Confirmation page which was returned to you at the interview. After the interview, your case status will show as “Administrative Processing.” You do not need to contact us while your status remains in “Administrative Processing.” If we need any further information from you, we will contact you.
When your case status changes to “Issued,” your visa is ready for pick-up. You may come and collect it from the U.S. Embassy, Gate 2 on any workday between 3:00 to 3:30 p.m. Please bring the DS-160 Confirmation page with your bar code ID number.
How to Search:

For applicants who had an interview BEFORE December 23, 2012:

If your visa application has been refused 221(g) and requires additional administrative processing, you can now check the status of your visa case from the Consular Electronic Application Center (CEAC) page https://ceac.state.gov/CEAC/ at any time. We recommend that you check your case status frequently. To do that, you need to enter your PIN ID given to you at the interview, and select the interview location (Bangladesh, Dhaka). If you kept your DS-160 Confirmation page, you can also use the CEAC barcode ID number located on the upper right hand side on that DS-160 (for example, AA0020AKAX). After the interview, your case status will show as “Administrative Processing.” You do not need to contact us while your status remains in “Administrative Processing.” We will contact you by email or by telephone and ask you to bring your passport to the U.S. Embassy when we are ready to issue your visa.
When your case status changes to “Issued,” your visa is ready for pick-up. You may come and collect it from the U.S. Embassy, Gate 2 on any workday between 3:00 to 3:30 p.m. Please bring the DS-160 Confirmation page or your PIN ID letter.

How to Search:

Please Note: If your PIN ID’s handwritten last digits are between 1 and 9, (for example, 2012111 111 6, you need to add three “0” before that last digit like this - 2012111 111 0001. If your PIN ID’s last digits are a number higher than 9 (for example, 2012111 111 23), please add two “0” before the last digit like this - 2012111 111 0023).  You may also use your CEAC barcode ID number that is located on the upper right hand side on your DS-160 Confirmation page. See the sample of below.

How to Earn Money Through Google Adsense

Money for nothing? Well, not quite—but close! Google’s AdSense is a revenue-sharing opportunity for small, medium and large web sites that places ads for goods and services that are relevant to the content of your site, targeted to the people who frequent your pages. In turn, you get paid a small amount when the ad is either displayed on your page, or clicked on. We'll show you some good ideas that added to your own, will help increase your AdSense revenue.

Creating an Ad Unit

1

Sign into your AdSense account. Go to AdSense, and click on My ads in the upper left.

1. • Create a new Ad unit. In the main screen area, under Content > Ad units, click the +New ad unit button.
     
     
2. 2
   Name your ad unit. This can be any name that suits you, but many find creating a standard naming format helps them manage large amounts of data.
   • For example, using [target site for the ad]_[ad size]_[ad date] is one approach, that would look like this: mywebsite.com_336x280_080112. Whatever format you decide to use for naming, make that your standard.
3. 3
   Pick a size. See "How to Do It" below for details, but Google has found best practices that generate more clicks.
4. 4
   Set your ad type. This determines the types of ads you will see on your website: text only; text and image/rich media; and image/rich media only.
5. 5
   Create a custom channel. A custom channel lets you group ad units however you choose, such as by size or location on a page.
   • You can track performance by custom channel, and turn your channel into a targetable ad placement so advertisers can target their ads to your ad units.
6. 6
   Create your ad style. This lets you choose colors for the various components of an ad: border, title, background, text, and URL. It also lets you choose corner styles, from square to very rounded, a font family, and a default font size.
   • It's good practice to create an ad style that harmonizes with the look and colors of your website.
   • You can use Google's presets, or use your own custom settings. In either case, a sample ad on the right will show you how your ad will appear
     
     
     
7. 7
   Get the code for the ad. When you're done with the ad setup, either save your ad unit, or click the Save and get code button at the bottom to get the HTML code for your site.
   • If adding code to your site is a puzzle you want help with, click here for Google's code implementation guide.
     
     
     

How to Design Your Ad Campaign

1. 1
   Analyze your content. In designing any kind of ad campaign, it's crucial to know who your target is. If you're writing a food blog that caters to single men on a budget, for example, you've narrowed the scope of who you will be appealing to. You've also got a very good focus point for your ads. What are things single men who cook drawn to? Here are some possibilities: dating, cars, movies, politics, and live music.
   • Think about who frequents your website, write down what you feel are the most important characteristics of your viewers.
2. 2
   Fine tune advertisements. While AdSense will auto-populate your page with what they feel are relevant ads, use their tools to provide tighter controls.
   • Set up channels. Channels are like labels that let you group your ad units your way—by color, category, or pages. By setting up channels, you can get detailed reports on the performance of your ad units, and use that to your advantage. For example:
     • Use one style of ad on one group of pages, and another style on another group. Track and compare the performance of the two styles, and pick the best performer.
     • Compare performance on pages that focus on different things. For example, if your pages about gardening perform better than your pages on cooking, you might consider adding more to your gardening pages.
     • If you have separate domains, set up a channel to track each of them to see which is generating the most clicks.
3. 3
   Optimize your ad placement and site design. Google has found there are places where ads are more effective, and places where they are less effective.
   • Ads that appear when you first arrive at your page (i.e., "above the fold" as they say in the newspaper world) tend to be more effective than those that are below the fold.
   • Ads on upper left tend to perform much better than ads on the lower right.
   • Ads directly above the primary content, and ads that appear at the bottom of the page and above the footer tend to perform very well.
   • Wider ads are generally more successful, as they are much easier to read.
   • Ads that display images or video perform very well.
   • Using colors that complement your website colors will make them more readable, and so more effective.
4. 4
   Learn how AdSense works. AdSense automatically sends ads to your site based on a few different criteria:
   • Contextual targeting. AdSense crawlers scan your page, analyze your content, and serve up ads designed match your content. They do this using keyword analysis, word frequency, font size, and the link structure of the web.
   • Placement targeting. This allows advertisers to choose to run their ads on specific subsections of a publisher's website. If your website matches an advertisers criteria, their ad will appear on your page.
   • Interest-based advertising. This lets advertisers reach users based on their interests and the user's previous interactions with them, such as a visit to their website. Google's Ads Preferences Manager allows users themselves to choose their interest categories, which further helps advertisers focus their ad campaigns. This method is good for monetizing your site more efficiently, as it increases the value for advertisers and provides a more relevant experience for users.

What's it Worth?

1. 1
   Manage your expectations. When you sign up for AdSense, you'll want to know what kind of revenue can you expect to see. There is a lot that goes into what kind of return you can expect, and managing those things will help you maximize your earning potential.
2. 2
   Traffic. First and formost, in order to generate any kind of revenue from AdSense you must have people clicking on your ads. In order for this to happen, you need to have people on your site, reading your content! Whether you have a business website, or a personal blog, the rule is the same: Get the word out!
   • Heavily trafficked large sites can see over a million hits a day, whereas a blog might feel lucky if they have 100 visitors a day.
   • For every thousand page impressions (views) you receive, you may earn from $.05 to $5. Yes, that's a broad range—over a month, that is between $1.50 and $150.00! Where in that range you can expect to frequent depends entirely on you, your site, and your promotion efforts.
3. 3
   Cost Per Click (CPC). This paid every time somebody clicks an ad on your page. No, you can't click your own ad—Google will see this, and shut you down so fast your head will spin. The advertisers set the price for these ads, and they can vary greatly.
   • An advertiser may spend a lot on a per-click basis, but that ad may generate very little interest on your site. #*An ad that may generate $.03 per click may get 100 hits, but that doesn't add up to much.
4. 4
   Clickthrough Rate (CTR). This is the percentage of visitors to your site compared to how many them actually clicked on an ad. If 100 people came to your site, and 1 of them clicked an ad, your CTR is 1%, and that's not an unreasonable number. You can see how getting more traffic to your site will really make a difference.
5. 5
   Revenue per 1000 impressions (RPM). This is an estimate of how much you might receive if you have 1000 impressions (page views).
   • If you made, for example, $1 for 100 impressions, your RPM would be $10. There is no guarantee you'll make that, but it's a good way to check the overall performance of your site.
6. 6
   Content is king. The quality of your content is an important factor in understanding your earning potential. If your site provides rich, compelling content and a great user experience, you will have more interested users. Google's crawlers will also have an easier time determining the type of ad content would best fit on your site. Interested users + targeted ads = $$$
7. 7
   Start building keyword-rich pages. Liberally seed with well researched, profitable keywords, and get lots of high quality links to your site.
   • If your site is about topics such as debt consolidation, web hosting or asbestos-related cancer, you’ll earn much more per click than if it’s about free puppies.
   • If you concentrate only on top-paying keywords, you’ll face stiff competition. What you want are keywords that are high in demand and low in supply, so do some careful keyword research before you build your pages.

HIV & AIDS in the United States of America

Since the beginning of the HIV and AIDS epidemic well over half a million people have died of AIDS in the United States of America – the equivalent of the entire population of Las Vegas. There are currently around 1.2 million people living with HIV in the United States of America and around a fifth of these are unaware of their infection, posing a high risk of onward transmission.
The USA’s response to the AIDS epidemic has produced mixed results. HIV prevention efforts have not always been successful and in 2009 approximately 54,000 Americans were infected with HIV, that is about one every nine-and-a-half minutes. Washington DC has an HIV prevalence of 3.2 percent among people over 12 years - similar to rates in some parts of sub-Saharan Africa.
Despite the seriousness of the epidemic, particularly in certain geographic areas and among certain demographic groups, the USA lacked a comprehensive plan on AIDS until 2010. President Obama had promised to rectify this during his election campaign by committing to the creation of a National HIV/AIDS Strategy. The Strategy, which was launched in July 2010, is structured around three core aims: reducing new HIV infections, increasing access to care and improving health outcomes for people living with HIV, and reducing HIV-related disparities and health inequities.
Stigma and discrimination towards HIV positive people still persist and thousands of uninsured Americans struggle to access good HIV care and antiretroviral therapy. The world’s biggest donor of AIDS-related funding is itself facing a major, ongoing AIDS epidemic.

Who is affected by AIDS in the United States of America? 

Although HIV and AIDS can and do affect all sectors of American society, the impact has been more serious among some groups than others. In the early years of the epidemic, the most commonly identified ‘vulnerable groups’ in the USA were men who have sex with men, injecting drug users, haemophiliacs and Haitians. However, the inclusion of Haitians in this group caused a lot of controversy. To find out more visit our History of AIDS in the United States of America page.
Today, AIDS continues to directly affect thousands of gay and bisexual men and injecting drug users every year, but it has also become a serious problem among Black Americans and, more recently, among the Hispanic/Latino population. However, it is not necessarily individual behaviour, but rather a person's sexual network which determines an individual's HIV risk in the USA. Therefore, black males are much more likely to be infected because of the high prevalence in this community and a tendency to choose racially similar partners as opposed to simply high-risk behaviour.
Wealth status also determines the likelihood of HIV infection in the USA. A study by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in 2010 showed that in America's poorest urban neighbourhoods HIV prevalence was 2.1 percent among heterosexuals, or more than 4 times the national average. Race or ethnicity did not account for any significant differences within the high-poverty groups studied. Rather, higher HIV risk within poor urban areas was attributed to, among other factors, high HIV prevalence, limited access to health care and other basic services, and high rates of substance abuse and incarceration. Socioeconomic status and HIV prevalence are also linked among men who have sex with men.
Younger people are also a more at-risk group. Although overall, the rate of new infections remained stable between 2006 and 2009, among adolescents and young adults HIV incidence increased by 21 percent. For young people who belong to key populations at higher risk, the increase was especially high; for example there was a 34 percent increase among young men who have sex with men during the same period.
The table below shows how the burden of AIDS among various ethnic groups compares to the percentage of the population that each ethnic group represents.

Race	Estimated % of new AIDS diagnoses in 2009	% of population in 2008
White	27%	65%
Black/African American	47.9%	12%
Hispanic/Latino	21.2%	15%
Asian	1.2%	4%
American Indian/Alaska Native	<1%	<1%
Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islander	<1%	<1%
Multiple races	2%	2%

African Americans: As the table above shows, African Americans are disproportionately affected by the AIDS epidemic. To date, black Americans account for 40 percent of all recorded AIDS related deaths.¹³ The AIDS related deaths of well-known African Americans - such as anchorman Max Robinson, tennis player Arthur Ashe, and rapper Eazy-E - during the 1980s and 90s, increased awareness of the AIDS epidemic among the black community, though there are signs that this level is decreasing. Both African American men and women are most likely to have become infected through sex with a man, with injecting drug use being the second most likely infection route. Factors such as heightened levels of poverty, lack of access to adequate healthcare, and stigma surrounding men who have sex with men shape the epidemic among African Americans.
Visit our HIV & AIDS among African Americans page for more information.
Hispanics/Latinos: Hispanics/Latinos are also disproportionately affected by the AIDS epidemic in the USA. It is estimated that 1 in every 52 Hispanics/Latinos will be diagnosed with HIV in their lifetime.¹⁴ The risk for men and women differs widely though; 1 in 36 Hispanic/Latino men will be diagnosed with HIV in their lifetime compared to 1 in 106 Hispanic/Latino women. Three quarters of new HIV infections among Hispanic/Latino men occur among men who have sex with men (MSM), and Hispanic/Latino MSM are thought to have the highest rates of unprotected sex among MSM in the US. Additionally, the Hispanic/Latino community has a disproportionately low access to healthcare. This is reflected in the number of deaths from AIDS among Hispanics/Latinos which has remained relatively stable since the beginning of the new millennium despite an overall decline in AIDS mortality in the USA. Language barriers, cultural factors, and migration patterns have also been identified as barriers to HIV treatment and prevention within the Hispanic/Latino community. In New York City, where 40 percent of all households are made up of Latinos born outside the US, the majority of health and civil society organisations cite a lack of bilingual and culturally sensitive HIV and AIDS services as a key obstacle to dealing with the city's epidemic. HIV was the fifth leading cause of death for Hispanics/Latinos aged 35–44 and the sixth leading cause of death for Hispanics/Latinos aged 25–34 in the US in 2007.

Pedro Zamora, who died of AIDS in 1994

Men who have sex with men: At the beginning of the USA’s epidemic, AIDS primarily affected men who have sex with men (MSM). Today, MSM still account for around three-quarters of HIV diagnoses among male adults and adolescents and the rate of HIV diagnoses among MSM is more than 44 times that of other men. According to one study published by the CDC in 2010, one in five MSM in the 21 cities surveyed has HIV and almost half are unaware of their status. Gay and bisexual men of all races are the only group where new infections are rising every year and it is thought this rising number of new infections is due to an increasing number of MSM having unprotected sex. The availability of antiretroviral treatment may also have lessened the fear surrounding AIDS, leading to complacency about using condoms. This complacency is evident in Washington D.C, where a study by the city's HIV/AIDS Administration revealed 40 percent of gay men had not used a condom with their last sexual partner. The study also found that, contrary to popular belief, men older than 30 had more sexual partners and were less likely to use condoms or get tested than their younger counterparts. Low testing rates among young MSM mean that the majority of HIV infected men under 30 are unaware of their HIV status. Due to their high HIV transmission risk MSM in the USA are recommended to go for HIV testing at least once a year.
Injecting drug users: Among those living with an AIDS diagnosis in the US in 2008, around 20 percent were infected with HIV through injecting drug use (IDU). Throughout the epidemic, prevention efforts among IDUs have been controversial. For 21 years, needle exchange services – where users exchange their used needles for clean ones – were not permitted any federal funding, even though in some areas of the USA these programmes have proved to be successful in reducing the rate of HIV transmission. The ban on federal funding for needle exchanges was lifted in 2009, however, in a controversial move Congress failed to allocate funding for needle exchanges for fiscal year (FY) 2012.

 

U.S. state of Nevada

Nevada (Listeni/nəˈvædə/) is a state in the western, mountain west, and southwestern regions of the United States. Nevada is the 7th most extensive, the 35th most populous, and the 9th least densely populated of the 50 United States. Over two-thirds of Nevada's people live in one single county, Clark County, which contains the Las Vegas–Paradise metropolitan area,[6] where the state's three largest incorporated cities are located.[7] Nevada's capital is Carson City. Nevada is officially known as the "Silver State" due to the importance of silver to its history and economy. It is also known as the "Battle Born State", because it achieved statehood during the Civil War; "Sagebrush State", for the native eponymous plant; and "Sage hen State."[8]

Nevada is largely desert and semiarid, with much of it located within the Great Basin. Areas south of the Great Basin are located within the Mojave Desert, while Lake Tahoe and the Sierra Nevada mountains lie on the western edge. Approximately 86% of the state's land is owned by various jurisdictions of the U.S. federal government, both civilian and military.[9]

The name Nevada is derived from the nearby Sierra Nevada mountains, which means "snow-capped mountain range" in Spanish. The land comprising the modern state was inhabited by Native Americans of the Paiute, Shoshone, and Washoe tribes prior to European contact.[10] It was subsequently claimed by Spain as a part of Alta California until the Mexican War of Independence brought it under Mexican control. The United States gained the territory in 1848 following its victory in the Mexican-American War and the area was eventually incorporated as part of Utah Territory in 1850. The discovery of silver at the Comstock Lode in 1859 led to a population boom that was an impetus to the creation of Nevada Territory out of western Utah Territory in 1861. Nevada became the 36th state on October 31, 1864.[11]

The establishment of legalized gambling and lenient marriage and divorce proceedings in the 20th century transformed Nevada into a major tourist destination.[12][13] Nevada is the only state in the U.S. where prostitution is legal. The tourism industry remains Nevada's largest employer,[14] with mining continuing to be a substantial sector of the economy as Nevada is the fourth largest producer of gold in the world.
Etymology and pronunciation
The quartzite of the Prospect Mountain Formation on top of Wheeler Peak, the highest peak entirely within Nevada

The name "Nevada" comes from the Spanish Nevada [neˈβaða], meaning "snow-covered",[16] after the Sierra Nevada ("snow-covered mountains") mountain range.

Nevadans normally pronounce the second syllable of their state name using the /æ/ vowel of "bad". Many from outside the Western United States pronounce it with the /ɑː/ vowel of "father" /nəˈvɑːdə/. Although the latter pronunciation is closer to the Spanish pronunciation, it is not the pronunciation preferred by locals. Notably, George W. Bush made this faux pas during his campaign for the 2004 U.S. Presidential Election. Vindication later came when President Bush campaigned at the Reno-Sparks Convention Center on June 18, 2004. The president opened his talk by proclaiming that "It's great to be here in Nevada /nəˈˈvædə/," emphasizing the correct 'a' – the crowd roared its approval when he light-heartedly noted, "You didn't think I'd get it right, did ya?"[17] Bush subsequently carried the state in the election. Assemblyman Harry Mortenson has proposed a bill to recognize the alternate (quasi-Spanish) pronunciation of Nevada.[18]
Geography
A topographic map of Nevada

Nevada is almost entirely within the Basin and Range Province, and is broken up by many north-south mountain ranges. Most of these ranges have endorheic valleys between them, which belies the image portrayed by the term Great Basin.

Much of the northern part of the state is within the Great Basin, a mild desert that experiences hot temperatures in the summer and cold temperatures in the winter. Occasionally, moisture from the Arizona Monsoon will cause summer thunderstorms; Pacific storms may blanket the area with snow. The state's highest recorded temperature was 125 °F (52 °C) in Laughlin (elevation of 605 feet or 184 metres) on June 29, 1994.[19] The coldest recorded temperature was −52 °F (−47 °C) set in San Jacinto in 1972, in the northeastern portion of the state.[19]

The Humboldt River crosses from east to west across the northern part of the state, draining into the Humboldt Sink near Lovelock. Several rivers drain from the Sierra Nevada eastward, including the Walker, Truckee and Carson rivers.
Mountains west of Las Vegas in the Mojave Desert

The mountain ranges, some of which have peaks above 13,000 feet (4,000 m), harbor lush forests high above desert plains, creating sky islands for endemic species. The valleys are often no lower in elevation than 3,000 feet (910 m).

The southern third of the state, where the Las Vegas area is situated, is within the Mojave Desert. The area receives less rain in the winter but is closer to the Arizona Monsoon in the summer. The terrain is also lower, mostly below 4,000 feet (1,200 m), creating conditions for hot summer days and cool to chilly winter nights (due to temperature inversion).

Nevada and California have by far the longest diagonal line (in respect to the cardinal directions) as a state boundary at just over 400 miles (640 km). This line begins in Lake Tahoe nearly 4 miles (6.4 km) offshore (in the direction of the boundary), and continues to the Colorado River where the Nevada, California, and Arizona boundaries merge 12 miles (19 km) southwest of the Laughlin Bridge.

The largest mountain range in the southern portion of the state is the Spring Mountain Range, just west of Las Vegas. The state's lowest point is along the Colorado River, south of Laughlin.

Nevada has 172 mountain summits with 2,000 feet (610 m) of prominence. Nevada ranks second in the US, behind Alaska, and ahead of California, Montana, and Washington. This makes Nevada the "Most Mountainous" state in the country, at least by this measure.
Climate

Nevada is the driest state in the United States.[20] It is made up of mostly desert and semiarid climate regions, daytime summer temperatures sometimes may rise as high as 125 °F (52 °C) and nighttime winter temperatures may reach as low as −50 °F (−46 °C). While winters in northern Nevada are long and fairly cold, the winter season in the southern part of the state tends to be of short duration and mild. Most parts of Nevada receive scarce precipitation during the year. Most rain that falls in the state falls on the lee side (east and northeast slopes) of the Sierra Nevada.

The average annual rainfall per year is about 7 inches (18 cm); the wettest parts get around 40 inches (100 cm). Nevada's highest recorded temperature is 125 °F (52 °C) at Laughlin on June 29, 1994 and the lowest recorded temperature is −50 °F (−46 °C) at San Jacinto on January 8, 1937. Nevada's 125 °F (52 °C) reading is the third highest temperature recorded in the U.S. just behind Arizona's 128 °F (53 °C) reading and California's 134 °F (57 °C) reading.

Las Vegas : US State

Las Vegas (/lɑːs ˈveɪɡəs/) is the most populous city in the U.S. state of Nevada and the county seat of Clark County.[5] Las Vegas is an internationally renowned major resort city known primarily for gambling, shopping, and fine dining and is the leading financial and cultural center for Southern Nevada. The city bills itself as The Entertainment Capital of the World, and is famous for its consolidated casino–hotels and associated entertainment. A growing retirement and family city, Las Vegas is the 31st-most populous city in the United States, with a population at the 2010 census of 583,756. The 2010 population of the Las Vegas metropolitan area was 1,951,269.[4] Today, Las Vegas is one of the top tourist destinations in the world.[6]

Established in 1905, Las Vegas was incorporated as a city in 1911. At the close of the 20th century, Las Vegas was the most populous American city founded in that century (a distinction held by Chicago in the 19th century). The city's tolerance for various forms of adult entertainment earned it the title of Sin City, and this image has made Las Vegas a popular setting for films and television programs. There are numerous outdoor lighting displays on Fremont Street, as well as elsewhere in the city.

Las Vegas often refers to the city plus some areas beyond the city limits, especially the resort areas on and near the Las Vegas Strip, and sometimes the entire Las Vegas Valley. The 4.2 mi (6.8 km) stretch of South Las Vegas Boulevard known as the Strip is mainly in the unincorporated communities of Paradise, Winchester, and Enterprise.
 History
Main article: History of the Las Vegas Valley
Southern Paiutes at Moapa wearing traditional Paiute basket hats with Paiute cradleboard and rabbit robe

The first reported European visitor to the Las Vegas Valley was Raphael Rivera in 1829.[9] Las Vegas was named by Spaniards in the Antonio Armijo party,[10] who used the water in the area while heading north and west along the Old Spanish Trail from Texas. In the 19th century, areas of the valley contained artesian wells that supported extensive green areas or meadows (vegas in Spanish); hence the name Las Vegas.

On May 3, 1844, while it was still part of Mexico, John C. Frémont led a group of scientists, scouts, and observers for the United States Army Corps of Engineers into the Las Vegas Valley.[11] On May 10, 1855, following annexation by the United States, Brigham Young assigned 30 missionaries of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints led by William Bringhurst to the area to convert the Paiute Indian population to Mormonism. A fort was built near the current downtown area that served as a stopover for travelers along the "Mormon Corridor" between Salt Lake and the briefly thriving colony of saints at San Bernardino, California. Mormons abandoned Las Vegas in 1857, during the Utah War. Las Vegas was established as a railroad town on May 15, 1905, when 110 acres (45 ha) owned by the San Pedro, Los Angeles and Salt Lake Railroad in what is now downtown Las Vegas was auctioned off. Among the railroad's most notable owners and directors were Montana Senator William A. Clark, Utah Senator Thomas Kearns, and R.C. Kerens of St. Louis.[12] Las Vegas was part of Lincoln County until 1908, when it became part of the newly established Clark County. The St. Joan of Arc Catholic Church near 4th and Bridger in downtown was founded in 1910.[13] Las Vegas became an incorporated city on March 16, 1911; Peter Buol was the first mayor.

Las Vegas started as a stopover on the pioneer trails to the west, and became a popular railroad town in the early 20th century. It was a staging point for mines in the surrounding area, especially those around the town of Bullfrog, that shipped goods to the rest of the country. With the proliferation of the railroads, Las Vegas became less important, but the completion of the nearby Hoover Dam in 1935 resulted in growth in the number of residents and increased tourism. The dam, located 30 mi (48 km) southeast of the city, formed Lake Mead, the largest man-made lake and reservoir in the US. Today, tours are offered into lesser-known parts of the dam. The legalization of gambling in 1931 led to the advent of the casino hotels for which Las Vegas is famous. Major development occurred in the 1940s, "due almost entirely" to the influx of scientists and staff from the Manhattan Project, an atomic bomb research project of World War II. Atomic test watching parties were sometimes thrown.[14] American organized crime figures such as Benjamin "Bugsy" Siegel and Meyer Lansky managed or funded most of the original large casinos.[15] The rapid growth of Las Vegas is credited with dooming Galveston, Texas; Hot Springs, Arkansas; and other major gaming centers in the 1950s.[16]
Geography and climate
Desert scene in the Las Vegas area

Las Vegas is situated within Clark County in an arid basin on the desert floor, surrounded by dry mountains. The Spring Mountains lie to the west. Much of the landscape is rocky and dusty; the environment is dominated by desert vegetation and some wildlife, and the area is subject to torrential flash floods. The elevation is around 2,030 ft (620 m) above sea level. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 135.86 sq mi (351.9 km2), of which 135.81 sq mi (351.7 km2) is land and 0.05 sq mi (0.13 km2) (0.03%) is water.

Within the city there are many lawns, trees, and other greenery. Due to water resource issues, there is now a movement to encourage xeriscapes. Another part of the water conservation efforts include scheduled watering groups for watering residential landscaping. A U.S. Environmental Protection Agency grant in 2008 funded a program that analyzed and forecast growth and environmental impacts through the year 2019.
Climate
Remnants of a rare snowfall in Las Vegas, December 2008

Las Vegas' climate is a subtropical desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh), typical of the Mojave Desert in which it lies. The city enjoys abundant sunshine year-round: it has an average of about 300 sunny days per year with more than 3,800 hours of sunshine.[17]

The summer months of June through September are very hot and mostly dry, with a July daily average temperature of 92.5 °F (33.6 °C), while night-time temperatures often remain above 80 °F (27 °C). There are an average of 131 days of 90 °F (32 °C)+ highs, and 70 days of 100 °F (38 °C)+ highs, with most of the days in July and August exceeding the latter benchmark, and only occasionally failing to reach the former. Humidity is very low, often under 10%.

Las Vegas' winters are of short duration and the season is generally mild, with December, the coolest month, averaging 47.7 °F (8.7 °C). The mountains surrounding Las Vegas accumulate snow during the winter but snow is rare in the Las Vegas Valley itself. Although, on December 16, 2008, Las Vegas received 3.6 inches (9.1 cm).[18] Temperatures reach the freezing mark on 7.5 nights of the year but rarely sink to 20 °F (−7 °C).

Annual precipitation in Las Vegas is about 4.2 in (110 mm), which on average occurs on 26–27 days per year.[19] Most of the precipitation falls in the winter, but the wettest month (February) has on average only 4 days of precipitation.

Los Angeles : U.S City

Los Angeles (Listeni/lɔːs ˈændʒələs/, /lɔːs ˈæŋɡələs/ or Listeni/lɒs ˈændʒəliːz/; Spanish: [los ˈaŋxeles], which is written Los Ángeles, Spanish for The Angels), officially the City of Los Angeles, often known by its initials L.A., is the most populous city in the U.S. state of California and the second most populous in the United States, after New York City, with a population at the 2010 United States Census of 3,792,621.[5] It has an area of 469 square miles (1,215 km2), and is located in Southern California.

The city is the focal point of the larger Los Angeles–Long Beach–Santa Ana metropolitan statistical area and Greater Los Angeles Area region, which contain 12,828,837 and nearly 18 million people respectively as of 2010, making it one of the most populous metropolitan areas in the world[6] and the second largest in the United States.[7] Los Angeles is also the seat of Los Angeles County, the most populated and one of the most ethnically diverse counties[8] in the United States, while the entire Los Angeles area itself has been recognized as the most diverse of the nation's largest cities.[9] The city's inhabitants are referred to as Angelenos.[10]

Los Angeles was founded on September 4, 1781, by Spanish governor Felipe de Neve.[11] It became a part of Mexico in 1821 following the Mexican War of Independence.[12] In 1848, at the end of the Mexican–American War, Los Angeles and the rest of California were purchased as part of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, thereby becoming part of the United States.[13] Los Angeles was incorporated as a municipality on April 4, 1850, five months before California achieved statehood.[14]

Nicknamed the City of Angels, Los Angeles is a leading world center of business, international trade, entertainment, culture, media, fashion, science, sports, technology, education, medicine and research and has been ranked sixth in the Global Cities Index and 13th in the Global Power City Index. The city is home to renowned institutions covering a broad range of professional and cultural fields and is one of the most substantial economic engines within the United States. The Los Angeles combined statistical area (CSA) has a gross metropolitan product (GMP) of $831 billion (as of 2008), making it the third largest in the world, after the Greater Tokyo and New York metropolitan areas.[15] Los Angeles includes Hollywood and leads the world in the creation of television productions, video games, and recorded music; it is also one of the leaders in motion picture production.[16] Additionally, Los Angeles hosted the Summer Olympic Games in 1932 and 1984.
 History
Historical affiliations

Spanish Empire 1781 – 1821
First Mexican Empire 1821 – 1823
Mexico United Mexican States 1823 – 1848
California Republic 1846
 United States 1848 – present
Main article: History of Los Angeles
The old city plaza, 1869
Los Angeles City Hall, shown here in 1931, was built in 1928 and was the tallest structure in the city until 1964, when height restrictions were removed.

The Los Angeles coastal area was first settled by the Tongva (or Gabrieleños) and Chumash Native American tribes thousands of years ago. Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, a Portuguese-born explorer, claimed the area of southern California for the Spanish Empire in 1542.[17] Gaspar de Portolà and Franciscan missionary Juan Crespí, reached the present site of Los Angeles on August 2, 1769.[18]

In 1771, Franciscan friar Junípero Serra directed the building of the Mission San Gabriel Arcangel, the first mission in the area.[19] On September 4, 1781, a group of forty-four settlers known as "Los Pobladores" founded the pueblo called "El Pueblo de Nuestra Señora la Reina de los Angeles", in English it is "The Town of Our Lady the Queen of Angels". The Queen of Angels is an honorific of the Virgin Mary.[20] Two-thirds of the settlers were mestizo or mulatto with a mixture of African, indigenous and European ancestry.[21] The settlement remained a small ranch town for decades, but by 1820 the population had increased to about 650 residents.[22] Today, the pueblo is commemorated in the historic district of Los Angeles Pueblo Plaza and Olvera Street, the oldest part of Los Angeles.[23]

New Spain achieved its independence from the Spanish Empire in 1821, and the pueblo continued as a part of Mexico. During Mexican rule, Governor Pío Pico made Los Angeles Alta California's regional capital. Mexican rule ended during the Mexican–American War: Americans took control from the Californios after a series of battles, culminating with the signing of the Treaty of Cahuenga on January 13, 1847.[24]

Railroads arrived with the completion of the Southern Pacific line to Los Angeles in 1876.[25] Oil was discovered in 1892, and by 1923, the discoveries had helped California become the country's largest oil producer, accounting for about one-quarter of the world's petroleum output.[26]

By 1900, the population had grown to more than 102,000,[27] putting pressure on the city's water supply.[28] The completion of the Los Angeles Aqueduct in 1913, under the supervision of William Mulholland, assured the continued growth of the city.[29]

In 1910, not only had the city of Los Angeles annexed Hollywood, but there were already at least 10 movie companies operating in the city. By 1921, more than 80 percent of the world's film industry was concentrated in L.A.[30] The money generated by the industry kept the city insulated from much of the economic pain suffered by the rest of the country during the Great Depression.[31] By 1930, the population surpassed one million.[32] In 1932, the city hosted the Summer Olympics.
The Los Angeles Coliseum hosted the Olympic Games in 1932 and 1984.

Following the end of World War II, Los Angeles grew more rapidly than ever, sprawling into the San Fernando Valley.[33] In 1969, Los Angeles became one of the birthplaces of the Internet, as the first ARPANET transmission was sent from the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) to SRI in Menlo Park.[34]

In 1984, the city hosted the Summer Olympic Games for the second time. Despite being boycotted by 14 Communist countries, the 1984 Olympics became more financially successful than any previous,[35] and the second Olympics to turn a profit until then – the other, according to an analysis of contemporary newspaper reports, being the 1932 Summer Olympics, also held in Los Angeles.[36]

Racial tensions erupted on April 29, 1992, with the acquittal by a Simi Valley jury of the police officers captured on videotape beating Rodney King, culminating in large-scale riots.[37] In 1994, the 6.7 Northridge earthquake shook the city, causing $12.5 billion in damage and 72 deaths.[38] The century ended with the Rampart scandal, one of the most extensive documented cases of police misconduct in American history.[39]

In 2002, voters defeated efforts by the San Fernando Valley and Hollywood to secede from the city.[40]
Geography
See also: Los Angeles Basin, San Fernando Valley, Greater Los Angeles Area, and Los Angeles County, California
Topography
The Los Angeles Basin

Los Angeles is irregularly shaped and covers a total area of 502.7 square miles (1,302 km2), comprising 468.7 square miles (1,214 km2) of land and 34.0 square miles (88 km2) of water.[4] The city extends for 44 miles (71 km) longitudinally and for 29 miles (47 km) latitudinally. The perimeter of the city is 342 miles (550 km).

Los Angeles is both flat and hilly. The highest point in the city is 5,074 ft (1,547 m) Mount Lukens,[41][42] located at the northeastern end of the San Fernando Valley. The eastern end of the Santa Monica Mountains stretches from Downtown to the Pacific Ocean and separates the Los Angeles Basin from the San Fernando Valley. Other hilly parts of Los Angeles include the Mt. Washington area north of Downtown, eastern parts such as Boyle Heights, the Crenshaw district around the Baldwin Hills, and the San Pedro district.
Mallards on the Los Angeles River

The Los Angeles River, which is largely seasonal, is the primary drainage channel. It was straightened and lined in 51 miles of concrete by the Army Corps of Engineers to act as a flood control channel.[43] The river begins in the Canoga Park district of the city, flows east from the San Fernando Valley along the north edge of the Santa Monica Mountains, and turns south through the city center, flowing to its mouth in the Port of Long Beach at the Pacific Ocean. The smaller Ballona Creek flows into the Santa Monica Bay at Playa del Rey.
MacArthur Park

The Los Angeles area is rich in native plant species due in part to a diversity in habitats, including beaches, wetlands, and mountains. The most prevalent botanical environment is coastal sage scrub,[44] which covers the hillsides in combustible chaparral. Native plants include: California poppy, matilija poppy, toyon, Coast Live Oak, and Giant Wildrye. Many of these native species, such as the Los Angeles sunflower, have become so rare as to be considered endangered. Though it is not native to the area, the official tree of Los Angeles is the Coral Tree (Erythrina caffra)[45] and the official flower of Los Angeles is the Bird of Paradise (Strelitzia reginae).[46] Mexican Fan Palms, Canary Island Palms, and California Fan Palms are common in the Los Angeles area, although only the last is native.
Geology

Los Angeles is subject to earthquakes due to its location on the Pacific Ring of Fire. The geologic instability has produced numerous faults, which cause approximately 10,000 earthquakes annually.[47] One of the major faults is the San Andreas Fault. Located at the boundary between the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate, it is predicted to be the source of Southern California's next big earthquake.[48] Major earthquakes to have hit the Los Angeles area include the 1994 Northridge earthquake, the 1987 Whittier Narrows earthquake, the 1971 San Fernando earthquake near Sylmar, and the 1933 Long Beach earthquake. Nevertheless, all but a few quakes are of low intensity and are not felt.[47] The Los Angeles basin and metropolitan area are also at risk from blind thrust earthquakes.[49] Parts of the city are also vulnerable to tsunamis; harbor areas were damaged by waves from the Valdivia earthquake in 1960.[50]
Climate
Main article: Climate of the Los Angeles Basin
Echo Park as seen with palm trees

Los Angeles has a Subtropical-Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification Csb on the coast, Csa inland), and receives just enough annual precipitation to avoid either Köppen's BSh or BSk (semi-arid climate) classification. Los Angeles has plenty of sunshine throughout the year, with an average of only 35 days with measurable precipitation annually.[51]

The average annual temperature in downtown is 66 °F (19 °C): 75 °F (24 °C) during the day and 57 °F (14 °C) at night. In the coldest month, January, the temperature typically ranges from 59 to 73 °F (15 to 23 °C) during the day and 45 to 55 °F (7 to 13 °C) at night. In the warmest month – August – the temperature typically ranges from 79 to 90 °F (26 to 32 °C) during the day and around 64 °F (18 °C) at night.

Temperatures exceed 90 °F (32 °C) on a dozen or so days in the year, from one day a month in April, May, June and November to three days a month in July, August, October and to five days in September.[51] Temperatures are subject to substantial daily swings; in inland areas the difference between the average daily low and the average daily high is over 30 °F (17 °C).[52] The average annual temperature of the sea is 63 °F (17 °C), from 58 °F (14 °C) in January to 68 °F (20 °C) in August.[53] Hours of sunshine total more than 3,000 per year, from an average of 7 hours of sunshine per day in December to an average of 12 in July.[54]

The Los Angeles area is also subject to phenomena typical of a microclimate, causing extreme variations in temperature in close physical proximity to each other. For instance, the average July maximum temperature at the Santa Monica Pier is 75 °F (24 °C) whereas it is 95 °F (35 °C) in Canoga Park.[55] The city, like much of the southern California coast, is subject to a late spring/early summer weather phenomenon called "June Gloom." This involves overcast or foggy skies in the morning which yield to sun by early afternoon.[56]

Downtown Los Angeles averages 15.14 inches (384.6 mm) of precipitation annually, which mainly occurs during the winter and spring (November through April), generally in the form of moderate rain showers, but often as heavy rainfall and thunderstorms during winter storms. The coast gets slightly less rainfall, while the mountains get slightly more. However the San Fernando Valley Region of Los Angeles can get between 16 and 20 inches (410 and 510 mm) of rain per year. Years of average rainfall are rare; the usual pattern is bimodal, with a short string of dry years (perhaps 7–8 inches or 180–200 millimetres) followed by one or two wet years that make up the average. Snowfall is extremely rare in the city basin, but the mountains within city limits typically receive snowfall every winter. The greatest snowfall recorded in downtown Los Angeles was 2 inches (5 cm) in 1932.[57] The highest recorded temperature in downtown Los Angeles is 113 °F (45 °C) on September 27, 2010[58] and the lowest recorded temperature is 24 °F (−4 °C) on December 22, 1944.

Washington, D.C.

Washington, D.C., formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, "the District", or simply D.C., is the capital of the United States. On July 16, 1790, the Residence Act approved the creation of a capital district located along the Potomac River on the country's East Coast. As permitted by the U.S. Constitution, the District is under the exclusive jurisdiction of the United States Congress and is therefore not a part of any U.S. state.

The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, which included the preexisting settlements of Georgetown and Alexandria; however, Congress returned the Virginia portion in 1846. Named in honor of George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. Congress created a single municipal government for the whole District of Columbia after the American Civil War.

Washington, D.C., had an estimated population of 632,323 in 2012, the 25th most populous place in the United States. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the city's population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington Metropolitan Area, of which the District is a part, has a population of 5.7 million, the seventh-largest metropolitan area in the country.

The centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to many national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of many international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups, and professional associations.

A locally elected mayor and 13-member council have governed the District since 1973; however, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. The District has a non-voting, at-large Congressional delegate, but no senators. The Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961, grants the District three electoral votes in presidential elections.
 History
Main article: History of Washington, D.C.

An Algonquian-speaking people known as the Nacotchtank inhabited the area around the Anacostia River when the first Europeans arrived in the 17th century.[3] However, the Nacotchtank people had largely relocated from the area by the early 18th century.[4]

In his "Federalist No. 43", published January 23, 1788, James Madison argued that the new federal government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance and safety.[5] Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia. Known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security.[6]

Article One, Section Eight of the United States Constitution therefore permits the establishment of a "District (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States."[7] However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital. In what is now known as the Compromise of 1790, Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and Thomas Jefferson came to an agreement that the federal government would pay each state's remaining Revolutionary War debts in exchange for establishing the new national capital in the Southern United States.[8][a]
Foundation
The U.S. Capitol after the burning of Washington during the War of 1812

On July 9, 1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, who signed the bill into law on July 16. Formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles (16 km) on each side, totaling 100 square miles (260 km2).[9][b]

Two preexisting settlements were included in the territory: the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751,[10] and the city of Alexandria, Virginia, founded in 1749.[11] During 1791–92, Andrew Ellicott and several assistants, including a free African American astronomer named Benjamin Banneker, surveyed the borders of the federal district and placed boundary stones at every mile point.[12] Many of the stones are still standing.[13]

A new "federal city" was then constructed on the north bank of the Potomac, to the east of Georgetown. On September 9, 1791, the three commissioners overseeing the capital's construction named the city in honor of President Washington. The federal district was named Columbia, which was a poetic name for the United States commonly in use at that time.[14][15] Congress held its first session in Washington on November 17, 1800.[16]

Congress passed the Organic Act of 1801, which officially organized the District and placed the entire territory under the exclusive control of the federal government. Further, the unincorporated area within the District was organized into two counties: the County of Washington to the east of the Potomac and the County of Alexandria to the west.[17] After the passage of this Act, citizens living in the District were no longer considered residents of Maryland or Virginia, which therefore ended their representation in Congress.[18]
Ford's Theatre in the 19th century, site of the 1865 assassination of President Lincoln

On August 24–25, 1814, in a raid known as the Burning of Washington, British forces invaded the capital during the War of 1812. The Capitol, Treasury, and White House were burned and gutted during the attack.[19] Most government buildings were repaired quickly; however, the Capitol was largely under construction at the time and was not completed in its current form until 1868.[20]
Retrocession and the Civil War
See also: District of Columbia retrocession and Washington, D.C. in the American Civil War

In the 1830s, the District's southern territory of Alexandria went into economic decline partly due to neglect by Congress.[21] Alexandria was a major market in the American slave trade and residents feared that abolitionists in Congress would end slavery in the District, further depressing the economy. Alexandrians petitioned Virginia to take back the land it had donated to form the District; a process known as retrocession.[22]

The state legislature voted in February 1846 to accept the return of Alexandria and on July 9, 1846, Congress agreed to return all the territory that had been ceded by Virginia. Therefore, the District's current area consists only of land donated by Maryland.[21] Confirming the fears of pro-slavery Alexandrians, the Compromise of 1850 outlawed the slave trade in the District, although not slavery itself.[23]

The outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861 led to notable growth in the District's population due to the expansion of the federal government and a large influx of freed slaves.[24] President Abraham Lincoln signed the Compensated Emancipation Act in 1862, which ended slavery in the District of Columbia and freed about 3,100 enslaved persons, nine months prior to the Emancipation Proclamation.[25] In 1868, Congress granted the District's African American male residents the right to vote in municipal elections.[24]
Growth and redevelopment
Crowds surrounding the Reflecting Pool during the 1963 March on Washington

By 1870, the District's population had grown 75% from the previous census to nearly 132,000 residents.[26] Despite the city's growth, Washington still had dirt roads and lacked basic sanitation. Some members of Congress suggested moving the capital further west, but President Ulysses S. Grant refused to consider such a proposal.[27]

Congress passed the Organic Act of 1871, which repealed the individual charters of the cities of Washington and Georgetown, and a created a new territorial government for the whole District of Columbia.[28] President Grant appointed Alexander Robey Shepherd to the position of governor in 1873. Shepherd authorized large-scale projects that greatly modernized Washington, but ultimately bankrupted the District government. In 1874, Congress replaced the territorial government with an appointed three-member Board of Commissioners.[29]

The city's first motorized streetcars began service in 1888 and generated growth in areas of the District beyond the City of Washington's original boundaries. Washington's urban plan was expanded throughout the District in the following decades.[30] Georgetown was formally annexed by the City of Washington in 1895.[31] However, the city had poor housing conditions and strained public works. Washington was the first city in the nation to undergo urban renewal projects as part of the "City Beautiful movement" in the early 1900s.[32]

Increased federal spending as a result of the New Deal in the 1930s led to the construction of new government buildings, memorials, and museums in Washington.[33] World War II further increased government activity, adding to the number of federal employees in the capital;[34] by 1950, the District's population reached its peak of 802,178 residents.[26]
Civil rights and home rule

The Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution was ratified in 1961, granting the District three votes in the Electoral College for the election of president and vice president, but still no voting representation in Congress.[35]

After the assassination of civil rights leader Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., on April 4, 1968, riots broke out in the District, primarily in the U Street, 14th Street, 7th Street, and H Street corridors, centers of black residential and commercial areas. The riots raged for three days until more than 13,600 federal troops stopped the violence. Many stores and other buildings were burned; rebuilding was not completed until the late 1990s.[36]

In 1973, Congress enacted the District of Columbia Home Rule Act, providing for an elected mayor and 13-member council for the District.[37] In 1975, Walter Washington became the first elected and first black mayor of the District.[38]

On September 11, 2001, terrorists hijacked American Airlines Flight 77 and deliberately crashed the plane into the Pentagon in nearby Arlington, Virginia. United Airlines Flight 93, believed to be destined for Washington, D.C., crashed in Pennsylvania when passengers tried to recover control of the plane from hijackers.[39][40]
Geography
Main article: Geography of Washington, D.C.
The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal passes through the Georgetown neighborhood.

Washington, D.C., is located in the mid-Atlantic region of the U.S. East Coast. Due to the District of Columbia retrocession, the city has a total area of 68.3 square miles (177 km2), of which 61.4 square miles (159 km2) is land and 6.9 square miles (18 km2) (10.16%) is water.[41] The District is bordered by Montgomery County, Maryland to the northwest; Prince George's County, Maryland to the east; and Arlington and Alexandria, Virginia to the south and west.

The Potomac River forms the District's border with Virginia and has two major tributaries: the Anacostia River and Rock Creek.[42] Tiber Creek, a natural watercourse that once passed through the National Mall, was fully enclosed underground during the 1870s.[43] The creek also formed a portion of the now-filled Washington City Canal, which allowed passage through the city to the Anacostia River from 1815 until the 1850s.[44] The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal starts in Georgetown and was used during the 19th century to bypass the Great Falls of the Potomac River, located upstream (northwest) of Washington at the Atlantic Seaboard fall line.[45]

The highest natural elevation in the District is 409 feet (125 m) above sea level at Fort Reno Park in upper northwest Washington.[46] The lowest point is sea level at the Potomac River.[47] The geographic center of Washington is near the intersection of 4th and L Streets NW.[48] Contrary to the urban legend, Washington was not built on a reclaimed swamp, but wetlands did cover areas along the water.[49][50]

The District has 7,464 acres (30.21 km2) of parkland, about 19% of the city's total area and the second-highest percentage among high-density U.S. cities.[51] The National Park Service manages most of the 9,122 acres (36.92 km2) of city land owned by the U.S. government.[52] Rock Creek Park is a 1,754-acre (7.10 km2) urban forest in Northwest Washington, which extends 9.3 miles (15.0 km) through a stream valley that bisects the city. Established in 1890, it is the country's fourth-oldest national park and is home to a variety of plant and animal species including raccoon, deer, owls, and coyotes.[53] Other National Park Service properties include the C&O Canal National Historical Park, the National Mall and Memorial Parks, Theodore Roosevelt Island, Columbia Island, Fort Dupont Park, Meridian Hill Park, Kenilworth Park and Aquatic Gardens, and Anacostia Park.[54] The D.C. Department of Parks and Recreation maintains the city's 900 acres (3.6 km2) of athletic fields and playgrounds, 40 swimming pools, and 68 recreation centers.[55] The U.S. Department of Agriculture operates the 446-acre (1.80 km2) U.S. National Arboretum in Northeast Washington.[56]
Climate
See also: List of Maryland hurricanes (1980–present) and List of Washington, D.C. tornadoes
The National Cherry Blossom Festival is celebrated around the city each spring.

Washington is in the humid subtropical climate zone (Köppen: Cfa) and exhibits four distinct seasons.[57] Its climate is typical of Mid-Atlantic U.S. areas removed from bodies of water. The District is in plant hardiness zone 8a near downtown, and zone 7b elsewhere in the city, indicating a temperate climate.[58]

Spring and fall are warm, while winter is cool with annual snowfall averaging 15.5 inches (39 cm). Winter temperatures average around 38 °F (3.3 °C) from mid-December to mid-February.[59] Summers are hot and humid with a July daily average of 79.8 °F (26.6 °C) and average daily relative humidity around 66%, which can cause moderate personal discomfort.[59][60] The combination of heat and humidity in the summer brings very frequent thunderstorms, some of which occasionally produce tornadoes in the area.[61]

Blizzards affect Washington on average once every four to six years. The most violent storms are called "nor'easters", which often affect large sections of the U.S. East Coast.[62] Hurricanes (or their remnants) occasionally track through the area in late summer and early fall, but are often weak by the time they reach Washington, partly due to the city's inland location.[63] Flooding of the Potomac River, however, caused by a combination of high tide, storm surge, and runoff, has been known to cause extensive property damage in Georgetown.[64]

The highest recorded temperature was 106 °F (41 °C) on July 20, 1930, and August 6, 1918,[65] while the lowest recorded temperature was −15 °F (−26 °C) on February 11, 1899, during the Great Blizzard of 1899.[59][62] During a typical year, the city averages about 37 days at or above 90 °F (32.2 °C) and 64 nights at or below freezing.

Rail transport

Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods by way of wheeled vehicles running on rail tracks. It is also commonly referred to as Train transport. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles merely run on a prepared surface, rail vehicles are also directionally guided by the tracks on which they run. Track usually consists of steel rails installed on sleepers/ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels, moves. However, other variations are also possible, such as slab track where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface.

Rolling stock in railway transport systems generally has lower frictional resistance when compared with highway vehicles, and the passenger and freight cars (carriages and wagons) can be coupled into longer trains. The operation is carried out by a railway company, providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities. Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electrical power from a railway electrification system or produce their own power, usually by diesel engines. Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system. Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport.[Nb 1] Railway transport is capable of high levels of passenger and cargo utilization and energy efficiency, but is often less flexible and more capital-intensive than highway transport is, when lower traffic levels are considered.

The oldest, man-hauled railways date to the 6th century B.C, with Periander, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, credited with its invention. Rail transport blossomed after the British development of the steam engine as a viable source of power in the 18th and 19th centuries. With steam engines, it was possible to construct mainline railways, which were a key component of the industrial revolution. Also, railways reduced the costs of shipping, and allowed for fewer lost goods. The change from canals to railways allowed for "national markets" in which prices varied very little from city to city. Studies have shown that the invention and development of the railway in Europe was one of the most important technological inventions of the late 19th century for the United States, without which, GDP would have been lower by 7.0% in 1890. In the 1880s, electrified trains were introduced, and also the first tramways and rapid transit systems came into being. Starting during the 1940s, the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives, with the process being almost complete by 2000. During the 1960s, electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan and a few other countries. Other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions, such as monorail or maglev, have been tried but have seen limited use.
History

The history of the growth, decline and resurgence of rail transport can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of motive power used.
Pre-steam
Horsecar in Brno, Czech Republic

The earliest evidence of a railway was a 6-kilometre (3.7 mi) Diolkos wagonway, which transported boats across the Corinth isthmus in Greece during the 6th century BC. Trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element. The Diolkos ran for over 600 years.[1]

Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages. The earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a stained-glass window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany, dating from around 1350.[2] In 1515, Cardinal Matthäus Lang wrote a description of the Reisszug, a funicular railway at the Hohensalzburg Castle in Austria. The line originally used wooden rails and a hemp haulage rope, and was operated by human or animal power. The line still exists, albeit in updated form, and is one of the oldest railways still to operate.[3][4]

By 1550, narrow gauge railways with wooden rails were common in mines in Europe.[5] By the 17th century, wooden wagonways were common in the United Kingdom for transporting coal from mines to canal wharfs for transshipment to boats. The world's oldest working railway, built in 1758, is the Middleton Railway in Leeds. In 1764, the first gravity railroad in the United States was built in Lewiston, New York.[6] The first permanent tramway was the Leiper Railroad in 1810.[7]

The first iron plate railway made with cast iron plates on top of wooden rails, was taken into use in 1768.[8] This allowed a variation of gauge to be used. At first only balloon loops could be used for turning, but later, movable points were taken into use that allowed for switching.[9] From the 1790s, iron edge rails began to appear in the United Kingdom.[10] In 1803, William Jessop opened the Surrey Iron Railway in south London, arguably the world's first horse-drawn public railway.[11] The invention of the wrought iron rail by John Birkinshaw in 1820 allowed the short, brittle, and often uneven, cast iron rails to be extended to 15 feet (4.6 m) lengths.[12] These were succeeded by steel in 1857.[10]
Age of steam
A British steam locomotive-hauled train
Tren a las Nubes (Train to the Clouds), located in Salta, Argentina

The development of the steam engine during the Industrial revolution in the United Kingdom spurred ideas for mobile steam locomotives that could haul trains on tracks. James Watt's patented steam engines of 1769 (revised in 1782) were heavy low-pressure engines which were not suitable for use in locomotives. However, in 1804, using high-pressure steam, Richard Trevithick demonstrated the first locomotive-hauled train in Merthyr Tydfil, United Kingdom.[13][14] Accompanied with Andrew Vivian, it ran with mixed success,[15] breaking some of the brittle cast-iron plates.[16] Two years later, the first passenger horse-drawn railway was opened nearby between Swansea and Mumbles.[17]
Earliest British steam railways

In 1811, John Blenkinsop designed the first successful and practical railway locomotive[18]—a rack railway worked by a steam locomotive between Middleton Colliery and Leeds on the Middleton Railway. The locomotive, Salamanca, was built the following year.[19]:20 In 1825, George Stephenson built the Locomotion for the Stockton and Darlington Railway, north east England, which was the first public steam railway in the world. In 1829, he built The Rocket which was entered in and won the Rainhill Trials. This success led to Stephenson establishing his company as the pre-eminent builder of steam locomotives used on railways in the United Kingdom, the United States and much of Europe.[19]:24–30

In 1830, the first intercity railway, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, opened. The gauge was that used for the early wagonways and had been adopted for the Stockton and Darlington Railway.[20] The 1,435 mm (4 ft 8 1⁄2 in) width became known as the international standard gauge, used by about 60% of the world's railways. This spurred the spread of rail transport outside the UK.

By the early 1850s Britain had over 7,000 miles of railway, 'a stunning achievement given that only twenty years had elapsed since the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway.[21]
Early railroads in the US

Railroads (as they are known in the US) were built on a far larger scale than those in Continental Europe, both in terms of the distances covered and also in the loading gauge adopted, which allowed for heavier locomotives and double-deck trains.

The railroad era in the United States began in 1830 when Peter Cooper's locomotive, Tom Thumb, first steamed along 13 miles (21 km) of Baltimore and Ohio railroad track.[22] In 1833, the nation's second railroad ran 136 miles (219 km) from Charleston to Hamburg in South Carolina.[23] Not until the 1850s, though, railroads offered long distance service at reasonable rates. A journey from Philadelphia to Charleston involved eight different gauges, which meant that passengers and freight had to change trains seven times. Only at places like Bowling Green, Kentucky, the railroads were connected to one another.

The Baltimore and Ohio that opened in 1830 was the first to evolve from a single line to a network in the United States.[24] By 1831, a steam railway connected Albany and Schenectady, New York, a distance of 16 miles, which was covered in 40 minutes.[25]

The years between 1850 and 1890 saw phenomenal growth in the US railroad system, which at its peak constituted one third of the world's total mileage.[26][not in citation given] Although the American Civil War placed a temporary halt to major new developments, the conflict did demonstrate the enormous strategic importance of railways at times of war. After the war, major developments include the first elevated railway built in New York in 1867 as well as the symbolically important first transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869.[27]
Electrification and dieselisation
0-Series Shinkansen, introduced in 1964, triggered the intercity train travel boom.
Elevated section of the Chicago 'L'
Luas in Dublin, Ireland

Experiments with electrical railways were started by Robert Davidson in 1838. He completed a battery-powered carriage capable of 6.4 km/h (4 mph). The Gross-Lichterfelde Tramway was the first to use electricity fed to the trains en route, when it opened in 1881. Overhead wires were taken into use in the Mödling and Hinterbrühl Tram in Austria in October 1883. At first, this was taken into use on tramways that, until then, had been horse-drawn tramcars. The first conventional completely electrified railway mainline was the 106 km Valtellina line in Italy that was opened on 4 September 1902. During the 1890s, many large cities, such as London, Paris and New York City used the new technology to build rapid transit for urban commuting. In smaller cities, tramways became common and were often the only mode of public transport until the introduction of buses in the 1920s. In North America, interurbans became a common mode to reach suburban areas. At first, all electric railways used direct current but, in 1904, the Stubaital Line in Austria opened with alternating current.[28]

Steam locomotives require large pools of labour to clean, load, maintain and run. After World War II, dramatically increased labour costs in developed countries made steam an increasingly costly form of motive power. At the same time, the war had forced improvements in internal combustion engine technology that made diesel locomotives cheaper and more powerful. This caused many railway companies to initiate programmes to convert all unelectrified sections from steam to diesel locomotion.

Following the large-scale construction of motorways after the war, rail transport became less popular for commuting and air transport started taking large market shares from long-haul passenger trains. Most tramways were either replaced by rapid transits or buses, while high transshipment costs caused short-haul freight trains to become uncompetitive. The 1973 oil crisis led to a change of mind set and most tram systems that had survived into the 1970s remain today. At the same time, containerization allowed freight trains to become more competitive and participate in intermodal freight transport. With the 1964 introduction of the Shinkansen high-speed rail in Japan, trains could again have a dominant position on intercity travel. During the 1970s, the introduction of automated rapid transit systems allowed cheaper operation. The 1990s saw an increased focus on accessibility and low-floor trains. Many tramways have been upgraded to light rail and many cities that closed their old tramways have reopened new light railway systems.
Innovations

Many benchmarks in equipment and infrastructure led to the growing use of railways. Some innovative features taking place in the 19th and 20th centuries included wood cars replaced with all-steel cars, which provided better safety and maintenance; iron rails replaced with steel rails, which provided higher speed and capacity with lower weight and cost; stove-heated cars to steam-heating cars, piped from locomotive; gas lighting to electric lighting, with use of battery/alternator unit beneath the car; development of air-conditioning with additional underbody equipment and ice compartment. Some innovative rolling stock included the lightweight, diesel-powered streamliner, which was a modernistic, aerodynamically styled train with flowing contours; then came the ultra-lightweight car with internal combustion engine in each train's power car; others included the dome car, turbined-powered trains, bilevel rolling stock, and the high-tech/high-speed electric trains.[29]

Even more, in the first half of the 20th century, infrastructure elements adopted technological changes including the continuously welded rail that was 1/4 miles long; concrete tie usage; double tracking major lines; intermodal terminal and handling technology; advances in diesel-electric propulsion to include AC traction systems and propulsion braking systems; and just-in-time inventory control. Beyond technology, even management of systems seen improvements with the adoption of environmental impact concerns; heightened concern of employee and public safety; introduction of urban area rail networks and public agencies to manage them; and downsizing of the industry employment with greater use of contractors and consultants.[30]
Trains
Main article: Train

A train is a connected series of rail vehicles that move along the track. Propulsion for the train is provided by a separate locomotive or from individual motors in self-propelled multiple units. Most trains carry a revenue load, although non-revenue cars exist for the railway's own use, such as for maintenance-of-way purposes. The engine driver controls the locomotive or other power cars, although people movers and some rapid transits are driverless.
Haulage
Russian 2TE10U diesel locomotive

Traditionally, trains are pulled using a locomotive. This involved a single or multiple powered vehicles being located at the front of the train and providing sufficient adhesion to haul the weight of the full train. This remains dominant for freight trains and is often used for passenger trains. A push-pull train has the end passenger car equipped with a driver's cab so the engine driver can remotely control the locomotive. This allows one of the locomotive-hauled train's drawbacks to be removed, since the locomotive need not be moved to the end of the train each time the train changes direction. A railroad car is a vehicle used for the haulage of either passengers or freight.

A multiple unit has powered wheels throughout the whole train. These are used for rapid transit and tram systems, as well as many both short- and long-haul passenger trains. A railcar is a single, self-powered car. Multiple units have a driver's cab at each end of the unit and were developed following the ability to build electric motors and engines small enough to fit under the coach. There are only a few freight multiple units, most of which are high-speed post trains.
Motive power
A RegioSwinger multiple unit of the Croatian Railways

Steam locomotives are locomotives with a steam engine that provides adhesion. Coal, petroleum, or wood is burned in a firebox. The heat boils water in the fire-tube boiler to create pressurized steam. The steam travels through the smokebox before leaving via the chimney. In the process, it powers a piston that transmits power directly through a connecting rod (US: main rod) and a crankpin (US: wristpin) on the driving wheel (US main driver) or to a crank on a driving axle. Steam locomotives have been phased out in most parts of the world for economical and safety reasons although many are preserved in working order by heritage railways.

Electric locomotives draw power from a stationary source via an overhead wire or third rail. Some also or instead use a battery. A transformer in the locomotive converts the high voltage, low current power to low voltage, high current used in the electric motors that power the wheels. Modern locomotives use three-phase AC induction motors. Electric locomotives are the most powerful traction. They are also the cheapest to run and provide less noise and no local air pollution. However, they require high capital investments both for the overhead lines and the supporting infrastructure. Accordingly, electric traction is used on urban systems, lines with high traffic and for high-speed rail.

Diesel locomotives use a diesel engine as the prime mover. The energy transmission may be either diesel-electric, diesel-mechanical or diesel-hydraulic but diesel-electric is dominant. Electro-diesel locomotives are built to run as diesel-electric on unelectrified sections and as electric locomotives on electrified sections.

Alternative methods of motive power include magnetic levitation, horse-drawn, cable, gravity, pneumatics and gas turbine.
Passenger trains
Interior view of the top deck of a VR InterCity2 double-deck carriage

A passenger train travels between stations where passengers may embark and disembark. The oversight of the train is the duty of a guard/train manager. Passenger trains are part of public transport and often make up the stem of the service, with buses feeding to stations. Passenger trains can involve a variety of functions including long distance intercity travel, daily commuter trips, or local urban transit services. They even include a diversity of vehicles, operating speeds, right of way requirements, and service frequency. Passenger trains usually can be divided into two operations: intercity railway and intracity transit. Whereas as intercity railway involve higher speeds, longer routes, and lower frequency (usually scheduled), intracity transit involves lower speeds, shorter routes, and higher frequency (especially during peak hours).[30]

Intercity trains are long-haul trains that operate with few stops between cities. Trains typically have amenities such as a dining car. Some lines also provide over-night services with sleeping cars. Some long-haul trains been given a specific name. Regional trains are medium distance trains that connect cities with outlying, surrounding areas, or provide a regional service, making more stops and having lower speeds. Commuter trains serve suburbs of urban areas, providing a daily commuting service. Airport rail links provide quick access from city centres to airports.

High-speed rail are special inter-city trains that operate at much higher speeds than conventional railways, the limit being regarded at 200 to 320 km/h. High-speed trains are used mostly for long-haul service and most systems are in Western Europe and East Asia. The speed record is 574.8 km/h (357.2 mph), set by a modified French TGV.[31][32] Magnetic levitation trains such as the Shanghai airport train use under-riding magnets which attract themselves upward towards the underside of a guideway and this line has achieved somewhat higher peak speeds in day-to-day operation than conventional high-speed railways, although only over short distances. Due to their heightened speeds, route alignments for high-speed rail tend to be steeper grades and broader curves compared to conventional railways. Their high kinetic energy translates to higher horsepower-to-ton ratios (20 hp/ton); this allows trains to accelerate and maintain higher speeds and negotiate steep grades as momentum builds up and recovered in downgrades (reducing cut, fill, and tunneling requirements). Since lateral forces act on curves, curvatures are designed with the highest possible radius. All these features are dramatically different from freight operations, thus justifying exclusive high-speed rail lines if it is economically feasible.[30]
Rail Network in Paris, France

Rapid transit is an intracity system built in large cities and has the highest capacity of any passenger transport system. It is grade separated and commonly built underground or elevated. At street level, smaller trams can be used. Light rails are upgraded trams that have step-free access, their own right-of-way and sometimes sections underground. Monorail systems operate as elevated, medium capacity systems. A people mover is a driverless, grade-separated train that serves only a few stations, as a shuttle. Due to the wide variety of rapid transit systems without much uniformity, route alignment vary widely with diverse right-of-ways (private land, side of road, street median) and geometric characteristics (sharp or broad curves, steep or gentle grades). For instance, the Chicago El trains are designed with extremely short cars to negotiate the sharp curves in the Loop. NJ's PATH have similar-sized cars to accommodate curves in the trans-Hudson tunnels. San Francisco's BART operate large cars on its well-engineered routes.[30]
Freight train
Main article: Rail freight transport
Bulk cargo of minerals

A freight train hauls cargo using freight cars specialized for the type of goods. Freight trains are very efficient, with economy of scale and high energy efficiency. However, their use can be reduced by lack of flexibility, if there is need of transshipment at both ends of the trip due to lack of tracks to the points of pick-up and delivery. Authorities often encourage the use of cargo rail transport due to its environmental profile.[33]

Container trains have become the dominant type in the US for non-bulk haulage. Containers can easily be transshipped to other modes, such as ships and trucks, using cranes. This has succeeded the boxcar (wagon-load), where the cargo had to be loaded and unloaded into the train manually. The intermodal containerization of cargo has revolutionized the supply chain logistics industry, reducing ship costs significantly. In Europe, the sliding wall wagon has largely superseded the ordinary covered wagons. Other types of cars include refrigerator cars, stock cars for livestock and autoracks for road vehicles. When rail is combined with road transport, a roadrailer will allow trailers to be driven onto the train, allowing for easy transition between road and rail.

Bulk handling represents a key advantage for rail transport. Low or even zero transshipment costs combined with energy efficiency and low inventory costs allow trains to handle bulk much cheaper than by road. Typical bulk cargo includes coal, ore, grains and liquids. Bulk is transported in open-topped cars, hopper cars and tank cars.